Motivation
Sung Jae Park, Ph.D.
Why is Motivation important
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Under optimal conditions, effort can often be increased and sustained
Delegation without constant supervision is always necessary (micromanaging or
constant support is difficult
Employees can become self-motivated
Motivated employees can provide competitive advantage by offering suggestions
& working to satisfy customers
Job performance = f (ability X motivation X organizational support)
Major Theories of Motivation
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Need Approaches:
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
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Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
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McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Cognitive Approaches:
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Expectancy Theory
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Equity Theory/ Social Comparison
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Goal Setting Theory
Reinforcement Approaches:
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Reinforcement Theory (behavior modification)
Major Theories of Motivation
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Businesses typically do well satisfying lower order needs.
2.
Model stipulates that there are 5 needs and that the order is “fixed”. Research
indicates some may only have 2-3 need hierarchy; others 5-6. The order may also
be inverted and meeting needs outside of work not accounted for.
3.
Model not developed from average employees
Major Theories of Motivation
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Major Theories of Motivation
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Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
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Job satisfaction is equivalent to being motivated (influence of Human Relations)
and assumption that the happy worker is a productive worker
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Job satisfaction/dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants
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Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene Factors:
Pay, fringe benefits; Working conditions; Quality of supervision; Interpersonal
relations
Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors:
Work itself, responsibility; Advancement; Recognition
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Major Theories of Motivation
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Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
Contributions
1st to argue that job content/job design was important
Job enrichment as a motivational strategy
Model appealing, easy to understand.
Explained why “more” hygiene factors did not increase motivation
Criticisms
Some individual differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator. Also, not
everyone wants an enriched job
Assumes satisfaction (presence of motivators) = motivation
Major Theories of Motivation
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McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
INDIVIDUAL NEED
High need for achievement
WORK PREFERENCES
- Individual responsibility
- Challenging but achievable goals
- Feedback on performance
- Interpersonal relationships
High need for affiliation
High need for power
- Opportunities to communicate
- Control over other persons
- Attention
- Recognition
JOB EXAMPLE
Field sales person with challenging
quota and opportunity to earn
individual bonus
Customer service representative;
member of work unit subject to
group wage bonus plan
Formal position of supervisory
responsibility; appointment as
head of special task force or
committee
Major Theories of Motivation
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Cognitive Approaches:
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the decision to expend effort
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the level of effort to exert
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how effort can be made to persist over time
Major Theories of Motivation
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Expectancy Theory:
Involves 3 cognitions/perceptions:
Expectancy - the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance.
Instrumentality - the perceived probability that performance will lead to rewards.
Valence - the anticipated value of a particular outcome to an individual.
Major Theories of Motivation
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Equity Theory:
The thinking process by which one makes a decision to exert effort is a function
of social comparison
Based on individual perceptions of outcomes (what your receive from expending
effort to complete a task), job inputs (what you bring or contribute to the task)
and perceptions of a referent person.
Involves 3 relevant perceptions:
 Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task. (e.g., pay)
 Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task.
 Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a REFERENCE PERSON.
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If: Outcomes Self = Outcomes Reference Person
Inputs Self
Inputs Reference Person
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Then equity exists.
Major Theories of Motivation
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Equity Theory:
INPUTS
Skill, Time, Effort, Loyalty, Hard Work
Commitment, Ability, Adaptability
Flexibility, Tolerance, Determination
Enthusiasm, Personal Sacriice, Trust in
Superiors
Support from co-workers and
colleagues
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Equity Theory:
OUTCOMES
Job Security, Esteem, Salary, Praise
Employee benefit, expenses, Thanks
Recognition, Reputation,
Sense of Achievement, Responsibility
Major Theories of Motivation
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Goal Setting Theory:
Goals can affect performance in three ways:
1 - goals focus people and direct efforts to goal-relevant activities
2 - goals can lead to more effort and are measurable (think SMART)
3 - goals influence persistence
Goals affected by:
1 - Goal difficulty (how hard I this)
2 - Goal Commitment (how committed am I to this)
3 - Goal specificity (what is needed exactly)
4 - Goal acceptance (I’m in this 100%)
Major Theories of Motivation
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Reinforcement Theory:
Some view this approach as an explanation of motivation; others limit it to how
motivation is sustained over time.
Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or cognitions. Managers can design
work environment to provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired behaviors &
weaken undesired behaviors. “Motivation is a function of the environment”.
Others allow for cognitions in that people can observe rewards and punishments
applied to others. Called social learning or vicarious learning.
Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be repeated
Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or toward punishment tends to
be avoided
The type of reinforcer & the timing (schedule) of reinforcement are key