Lesson # 8 - Stake Computing!

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Chapter 8
Cold War 1945 - 1958
Resumption of Civil Aviation

Nations demobilized
• Soviet Union did not
• War surplus transports

International Aviation
• Many Questions
Competition
 National Monopolies
 Regulation—international or individual gov’t
 Airspace free and open or sovereign
 Airport Operators

• Chicago Conference -- 1944
Chicago Conference

November-December 1944
• International Conference on Civil
Aviation issues
Rights of transit and landing
 Allocation of commercial air routes
 Safety issues
 Technical matters
 Navigation topics

• 52 countries participated

Soviet Union did not
Chicago Conference

Accepted U.S. standards
• Air rules
• Traffic control procedures
• Communication practices
• Meteorological services
Five Freedoms

Freedom 1 (Air Transit)
• Freedom to fly over foreign territory
without landing

Freedom 2 (Air Transit)
• Freedom to land for technical, nontraffic, non-commercial reasons
• Refueling or repairs
**Newfoundland excluded by British
Strategic position
Five Freedoms
Great Britain/United States disagreed
 Freedom 3 (Air Transport)

• Freedom to load passengers, mail, or
cargo in the airline’s country of origin
and disembark them in a foreign
country

Freedom 4 (Air Transport)
• Freedom to take on board passengers,
mail, or cargo in a foreign country and
to transport them to the airline’s
country of origin
Five Freedoms

Freedom 5 (Air Transport)
• Freedom to transport passengers, mail,
or cargo from one foreign country to
another foreign country beyond the
airline’s country
Canada acted as intermediary
 One & Two adopted multilaterally
 Three – Five formalized bilaterally

• BY 1953, only 12 agreed to all 5
Provisional ICAO

Organized in 1945
• 50 members
• Headquartered in Montreal
• Administered 96 articles of Chicago
Convention
• Active until ratification of Chicago
Convention
• Adopted U.S. radio and navigation aid
system
Replaced in 1947 by permanent ICAO
 Purpose

• Ensure safety
ICAO
50 member nations
 Purpose

• Ensure safety
• Encourage civil aircraft design
• Encourage development of airways,
airports, and air navigation facilities
• Promote fair, safe, efficient, and economical
operation of international standardization
ICAO

Telecommunications Services
• Iceland and Greenland
• Served N. Atlantic flights

1952
• Defined absolute liability of aircraft operator
for damage to third parties on ground

1955
• Limited liability of air carrier to passengers
IATA
International Air Transport Association
 Successor to IATA of 1919

• 1945 - 57 members from 31 nations
• Today – 230 members from 126 nations
• Focused on air traffic operations
• Established traffic conferences

Set international fares
IATA

Bermuda Agreement - 1946
• Compromise of Chicago Conference
• British
Yielded on frequency of service
 Newfoundland included for Freedoms 1 & 2

• U.S.

Yielded on price by recognizing IATA as
mechanism for joint rate-setting
• In effect until 1977


Bermuda 2 agreement
Bilateral agreements
• Traded air rights for foreign gov’t support
Resumption of Civil Aviation

Infrastructure
• 535 airports built
• ATC standardization
• Aviation #1 industry during war
#12 industry by 1948
Postwar boom in civil aviation

Civil Aeronautics Administration
• Decentralized
Policy making in Washington
 Regional policy administration
 Designee program

• Aircraft inspectors, flights instructors
• Technical Standard Order (TSO)
ICAO
Phonetic alphabet
 English international language
 Landing systems

• Ground Control Approach (GCA - Military)
• Instrument Landing System (ILS – Civil)

Radio Technical Commission for
Aeronautics (RTCA)
• VOR – 1952

45,000 miles of Victor airways - 1954
• Standard approach lighting

British system favored
Civil Aviation

General Aviation
• Production suspended during war
• Resumed in 1945
1946 – 35,001 civil aircraft
 1947 – 15,617 civil aircraft

• Annual operating cost was ½ of initial price
• New electronic navigation aids
1948 – 7,302 civil aircraft
 1951 – 2,477 civil aircraft

• 1945 – 20,000 private pilot licenses
awarded
• End of 1946 – 190,000 private pilots
Commercial Aviation

United States Airlines
• Big 5:
American
 Eastern
 Pan Am
 TWA
 United

• Small:
Continental
 Delta
 Pennsylvania Central
 Northeast

Commercial Aviation

Competition
• Domestic - Speed and service
• International - “area competition”
TWA – Atlantic routes
 American Export – Routes to Northern Europe
 Pan Am – peacetime monopoly of foreign
routes ended

• Non-skeds
Pilots with wartime experience
 War surplus aircraft
 Charter service – freight service

• Local service airlines
Commercial Aviation

Airways Crisis – 1950s
• Increased volume & type of air traffic
• Inadequate facilities/equipment/funding
• For safety, controllers spaced aircraft 10
minutes apart
Bad weather
 Greater separation

• Increased cancellations, delays, and nearmisses
• 1955 mid-air – 15 people died
Commercial Aviation

Crisis Resolution
• New and modern system required
• Different technologies squabble
• No common military/civilian system
• Piecemeal solution

MIT
• Semiautomatic Ground Environment
SAGE
 Air defense system
 Adopt to civil use?

Crisis Resolution

Government
• Long range radar facility in NY area

United Airlines
• Installed airborne radar equipment in
fleet

1957
• Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System

Crashes continued--Near misses
common
FAA

Congress passed legislation in 1958
• Federal Aviation Act of 1958

FAA independent department
• Executive Branch

Fully operational 1 Jan 1959
European Airlines

British Airlines
• Lack of transports

Purchased American aircraft
• Jet engine technology
• Comet (50% faster than others)
British ahead of other nations
 Farnborough Air Show
 Orders from around the world
 Flight tests in 1951

• 1st jet airline service – 2 May 1952

London to Johannesburg
European Airlines

Comet Crashes
• 6 crashes in 1953-1954
• Certificate of airworthiness withdrawn
Hydraulic flight controls gave no feedback
 Metal fatigue weakened fuselage

• Commercial air service resumed in 1958
• Redesigned windows
• Skin sheeting thickened
• British led in
Crash investigation
 Jet service
 Maintaining worldwide network of routes
 Developing long-haul routes

Commercial Aviation

French Airlines
• Civil air service resumed in 1945
• Aircraft from different nations

Soviet Airlines
• Tupolev (Tu-104) 2nd jet airliner (1956)
• National Airline (Aeroflot)

German Airlines
• Pilots did not fly for 5 years
• Lufthansa (1 Apr 1955)
• Deutsche Lufthansa (4 Feb 1956)
Commercial Aviation

European Lines
• Pattern -- Create strong national airline
Consortium (SAS)
 KLM
 SABENA
 Iberia
 Finnair

Commercial Aviation

Latin American Airlines
• Strong Axis influence
• U.S. provided support in 1941
• Countries nationalized Axis companies
• Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Mexico

Led aviation in post-war Latin America
Commercial Aviation

Africa and Asia Airlines
• Decolonization
• National and domestic airlines

Japan Airlines
• SCAPIN 301

Banned all civil aviation for 5 years
• SCAPIN 2106

Japan could create domestic airline
Hot Spots

USSR - Stalin
• Maintain territorial gains from war
• Destroy Germany
Economic
 Political
 Military threat

• Organized COMINFORM


Worldwide communism
U.S. - Truman
• Containment and deterrence
• Nuclear weapons – cheap alternatives
Nuclear Weapons

U.S.
• Sole nuclear power into 1949

Soviet Union
• 1949

United Kingdom
• 1952
Germany

No German postwar gov’t established
• 4 leading Allies occupied Germany
• West Germany/West Berlin
United States
 Great Britain
 France

• East Germany/East Berlin

Soviet Union
Germany
Berlin Air Lift

Western Allies
• Develop Germany economically
• Introduced single currency

Stalin
• West would not risk war over Berlin
• Soviet Union had not demobilized
• Rail blockade through E. Germany
• Total blockade – 24 June 1948
Berlin Air Lift

Truman response
• Berlin airlift
• Atomic retaliation threat

B-29s sent to Britain
Berlin Airlift

Operation Vittles
• Start 26 Jun 1948
• Douglas C-47s
• Required 5,000 tons/day

August 1948
• 1,500 flights/day
• 4,500 tons cargo

Operation Little Vittles
Berlin Aiflift

Operation Little Vittles
• Gail Halvorsen
• >3,000 tons of candy

West Berlin
• Winter – 6,000 tons/day
• New runway at Tempelhof
• French airport

Soviet Response
• Free food
• Psychological warfare
• Harassing flights (773)
Berlin Aiflift

January 1949
• 171,000 tons

February 1949
• 152,000 tons

March 1949
• 196,223 tons

April 1949
• Easter Parade
April 15 – April 16
 1,381 flights
 12,941 tons of coal

Berlin Aiflift

April 1949
• 234,476 tons

Net tonnage
• 6,729 tons/day
• 8,893 tons/day
Berlin Airlift

Blockade lifted
• 12 May 1949

Airlift ends on 30 Sep 1949
• U.S. delivered 1,783,573 tons
• British delivered 541,937 tons
• 101 fatalities
Korean War
Korea divided after WWII
 War began 25 Jun 1950

• PRK invaded South Korea

Rapidly pushed south
• UN counterattack – Sep 1950

1 Oct 1950 – pushed PRK past 38th parallel
• China intervention – 25 Oct 1950
300,000 Chinese troops cross Yalu River
 Push UN back south

• Truman authorizes atomic bombs

Guam
Korean War

Jet Fighters
• UN jet forces
F-84 Thunderjet
 F-86 Sabre

• Soviet jet forces

MiG-15 Fagot
• MiG Alley
Korean War

Bombing
• B-29s
Used against N. Korea cities
 Cities more than 50% destroyed
 Tonnage (600 – 800 tons/day)

• Chinese

Soviet Tupolev Tu-2 bombers
Korean War

Rotorcraft
• First large scale deployment
Medical Evacuation
 Sikorsky H-19

• Development of AH-1 Cobra
Korean War

Armistice
• Established DMZ
• China world power
• Eisenhower’s New Look policy
Nuclear deterrence
 Threat of nuclear retaliation

Hot Spots
French colonies
 French Colonial Wars

• Vietnam (1 Nov 1955 – 30 April 1975)

Dien Bien Phu
• French last stand
American presence increased
 Operation Linebacker I and II
 15 Jan 1973 – offensive action suspended
 27 Jan 1973 – cease fire

• American Aircraft
Grumman F6F Hellcat
 Grumann F8F Bearcat

Algeria

Significant use of helicopters
• Helicopter technology
• Gunship

Suppressive firepower
• Transport

Loading doors & rear loading door
• Need for reserve engine power
• Importance of maintenance
Atoms for Peace

Eisenhower’s UN speech
• Lead to disarmament?
• Atomic Energy Commission
Went public
 Nuclear power plants
 Medical applications


Nuclear Plane
• 1946 – NEPA established
• Millions spent
• Program cancelled in 1961
Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites

Air Defense
• Truman initiated in 1945
• MIT and Michigan funded for research

Sage
• Defense against enemy bombers
• Digital computers processed information
• Vacuum tube technology
• Operational in one sector – 1958
• 22 0f 32 sectors operational
• System obsolete by 1958
Missile replacing bombers
 Transistors replacing tubes

Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites

Electronics
• Vacuum tubes

First generation
• Transistors
Second generation
 Semi-conductor material

• Integrated circuit
Third generation
 Solid-state semiconductor material

Aircraft

Bombers
• US defense after war
• Boeing B-47
• Over 1,900 produced

Soviet Bombers
• Tupolev Tu-4 Bull
• Mya-4 Bison
• Tupolev Tu-95 Bear
Bombers

US perceived gap of 2 superpowers
• US increased bomber production

U-2 spy planes
• Showed USSR
lagged behind
Rockets & Missiles

Soviet Rocket Program
• Worked with captured German V-2s
• Within 5 years had in development
Nuclear warheads and ballistic missiles
 large long-range missiles
 Powerful rockets


US Rocket Program
• Small at start
• Project Paperclip
German scientists/engineers
 Live/work in United States
 Werner von Braun

Missiles

US Missile Programs
• Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

Develop thermonuclear weapons
• Atlas weapon system
First successful American intercontinental
missile
 More than 18,000 scientists/engineers

• Titan weapon system
• Falcon (air-to-air)
• Polaris (solid-fuel submarine launched)
Missiles

Soviet Missile Program
• More support for this program
• Developed variety of missiles
Surface-to-surface
 Surface-to-air
 Air-to-air

• August 1957

First launch of intercontinental ballistic
missile
Satellites

Soviet Satellites
• Sputnik

Sputnik I
• Launched 4 Oct 1957
• Transmitted for 21 days
• Contributed to space race

Sputnik II
• Launched 29 days after Sputnik I
• Carried laboratory dog
Satellites

US Satellites
• Vanguard
Ready to launch 6 Dec 1957
 Burned on launchpad

• Explorer I
Von Braun Army team
 Launched 31 Jan 1958
 Used Army Redstone rocket
 Transmitted until May 1958


Vanguard I
• Launched March 1958

Transmitted until 1964
Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites

Geophysical Year (1958)
• Soviets
More powerful vehicles
 Larger satellites

• U.S.
More satellites
 Better scientific equipment

Supersonic Flight

British abandoned program
• Cost and safety

U.S.
• Bell X-1 (14 Oct 1947)

Sustained for 20 seconds in level flight
• Bell X-2

Record altitude in 1956 (126,200 feet)
• First aircraft to reach Mach 3
 Went out of control
 Pilot killed, destroying plane
• Douglas D-558-2
• Rocket propelled
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