Principles of Behavior
and Learning Theory
Pre-Service Workshop
1
Learning Theory
1 of 2
• Learning: A change in behavior
that is long-term and relatively
permanent
• Theory: A set of underlying
principles or tested assumptions
which enable us to
– 1. Organize and interpret our
observations and
– 2. Decide on a response to those
observations
2
Introduction
1 of 2
• The Teaching-Family Model is a
behaviorally-based program
– We believe
• Behavior is learned
• Behavior can be changed or taught
– We do not view youth as “bad”, just
unskilled or skill deficient
– Inappropriate behavior is a product of
previous learning and/or lack of learning
3
1 of 2
We can address problem
behaviors and
therapeutic issues by
teaching social skills to
help children address
their needs in a positive
way
4
We can understand behavior
by examining three things:
• A ntecedent
– Conditions and events occurring
just before the behavior
• B ehavior
– Involves the five senses
– Frequency, duration, intensity
– Can be measured
• C onsequences of the behavior
– Determines whether the behavior
occurs more or less frequently in
the future
5
Law of Behaviors and
Desires
• Children act in ways that bring
them closer to things they like,
and away from things they
don’t like.
• Are adults motivated by this
law?
6
Understanding
Behavior
– Our goal is to create an environment
where positive behaviors can
increase, and inappropriate
behaviors can decrease
• Positive reinforcement to increase
appropriate behaviors
• Response cost to decrease inappropriate
behaviors
7
CONSEQUENCES WILL
HAVE AN EFFECT ON
FUTURE OCCURRENCE
OF BEHAVIORS
• We are all consequence
seekers.
– We can create a positive learning
environment in our homes, but we
have less control of other
environments (school, restaurants,
natural family, etc).
– Therefore, the consequences we
consistently maintain, and provide
rationales for, will generalize to
other areas.
8
Reinforcers
• A REINFORCER is an
event that:
–1. Follows the
occurrence of a
behavior.
–2. Increases the
probability of that
behavior.
9
Reinforcement
How new behaviors are learned
• Most people who have worked with our
youth in the past, focused on what they
did wrong
• Positive Reinforcement (4:1 -10:1)
• The privileges we use are basic
reinforcers for most kids
• We all have things we will work for
– Ask the youth for examples of personal
reinforcers: What do they do with their free
time?
• Reinforcers are individualized
10
Four Principles
of Effective Reinforcers
• Size
• Immediacy
– (60 second rule)
• Deprivation
• Contingency
11
Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Continuous: Every time the
appropriate behavior occurs,
the youth is reinforced. Used
to teach a new skill or reinforce
a weak skill.
• Intermittent: The behavior is
not reinforced every time it
occurs. Used to maintain skills
over time.
• Gradually shift from continuous
to intermittent reinforcement in
the home.
12
Increasing the
Frequency of Behavior
• Examples of Positive Reinforcement
Behavior
Volunteering to
help
Completing
homework
Crying
Mowing yard
Nagging and
pouting
Ignoring
Arguing
Consequence
Praise
Praise and
attention from
teacher
Mom gives a
cookie
Earning
money
Getting your
way
Have more
free time
Outcome
Behavior
MUST
increase
13
Increasing the
Frequency of Behavior
Negative Reinforcement
• Taking away something unpleasant
immediately following a behavior to
increase the frequency of that behavior.
Antecedent
Alarm
Sounds
Behavior Consequence
Turn off
Alarm
Quiet
Outcome
Complain
about
chores
Seat belt
buzzer
goes off
Parents
give in
The child
is quiet
Behavior
MUST
increase
You put on The buzzer
seatbelt
goes off
14
Increasing the
Frequency of Behavior
•
Shaping
– A procedure used to gradually
teach a completely new behavior
by reinforcing closer and closer
approximations to the desired
behavior
• Example: Parents rewarding young
children for sounds which approximate
actual words
– A process for teaching more
complex or difficult skills that the
youth isn’t currently using
15
Using Shaping
Effectively
• Decide on an effective reinforcer
• Keep your eye on the goal behavior
• Select an appropriate starting point
• Select appropriate “Steps” between behavioral
approximations
• Use continuous reinforcement when
establishing a new behavior
16
Increasing the
Frequency of Behavior
•
Shaping
– Shaping behavior involves
individualizing teaching to fit
the developmental level and
age of the child.
– The youth should be able to
recall and demonstrate the
step consistently before
moving on to the next step.
17
Decreasing
Undesired Behaviors
RESPONSE COST
• The consequence of a
behavior. This helps teach
the youth cause and effect.
• Consistent use will
decrease inappropriate
behaviors and increase
youth success.
– You must also teach an
alternative behavior so the
child knows what to do not just what not to do.
18
Decreasing
Undesired Behavior
• Examples of Response Cost
Behavior
Consequence
Speeding
Loss of Money /
License
Late starting
homework
Missing favorite
TV program
Missing
Practice
Whining
Sitting out next
game
Earn point fine
Not doing
chores
Not making
privileges
Outcome
Behavior
MUST
decrease
Loss of
Allowance
Miss out on
group activity
19
Guidelines
• Youth can earn up to half points
back for role playing a positive /
alternative behavior.
• Communicate the rules and
expectations clearly, so the youth
has every chance to succeed.
Try to eliminate “I didn’t know”
excuses, so you are not
constantly explaining.
20
Decreasing Undesired
Behavior
• DISADVANTAGES OF USING
PUNISHMENT
– Creates “Fight or Flight” response
– Does not teach alternative,
appropriate behavior
– Damages relationships
– May violate youth rights and staff
practices
– Encourages youth to use punishment
when interacting with others
21
Decreasing Undesired
Behavior
• Extinction:
Planned ignoring or actively
withholding reinforcement for behavior that
has previously been reinforced and the
behavior weakens
– Problems
• It is virtually impossible to control the
environment to prevent any possibility of
reinforcement
• Extinction Burst: Extreme escalation of a
behavior as a youth attempts to get the
expected reinforcement
• Spontaneous recovery - after a behavior has
decreased, it may reappear for no apparent
reason
• Learning occurs in the absence of active
teaching
22
Generalization
A term used when skills that
are taught in the treatment
setting are used in other
environments:
School
Home visits
Stores
Court
23
Increasing Generalization
• Give Rationales
• Create opportunities for youth
to use behaviors learned in
other environments
• Monitor and provide
consequences for behaviors
outside of the home (school
and home visit notes, etc)
24
Techniques used to increase
and/or decrease the frequency
of behavior
Behavior Increases
Presented
or Added
Removed or
Taken Away
Behavior Decreases
Positive
Reinforcement
Punishment
Negative
Reinforcement
Response Cost
25
Presented or
Added
Behavior Increases
Behavior Decreases
Positive
Reinforcement
Punishment
The presentation of a pleasant event
following a behavior, resulting in the
strengthening of that behavior.
Ex: Hugs, Praise, Raises
Negative
Reinforcement
Removed or
Taken Away
Any event that follows a behavior and
results in avoiding or escaping from
an unpleasant event and
strengthening the behavior.
Ex: Seat belt buzzer
Parental nagging
The presentation of an unpleasant or
aversive event following a behavior,
resulting in the weakening of that
behavior
Ex: Reprimands, Corporal
Punishment
Response Cost
The removal of pleasant or
positive events following a
behavior, resulting in the
weakening of that behavior.
Ex: Speeding Tickets
Loss of Privileges
26
RESOURES
Original Learning Theory
class follows
27
Learning Theory
How youth learn and are
motivated to learn
28
Definition of Learning
Theory
What is “learning theory” and why is it
included in the Pre-Service workshop?
A.
B.
Learning theory is included in the preservice workshop because it is the
foundation upon which the Teaching-Family
Model has been built. Many of the skills
which will be discussed in other sections are
based on these fundamental learning
principles.
Learning theory attempts to account for
behavior in terms of observable behaviors
and their antecedents and consequences.
Learning theorists do not deny the
contribution of genetics, biology or internal
dynamic causes to behavior, but are simply
less interested in these because they are
difficult to observe and control.
29
Learning Theory
Basic assumptions of learning theory:
1. Learning theory focuses on
behaviors, i.e. observable events,
described in language free from
inferences about the meaning or
significance the behaviors may have
for the individual.( Concepts such as
defenses, unconscious impulses and
personality traits are not considered
by learning theory.)
2. The learning theory model attacks
problem behaviors directly.
3. The learning model views all
behaviors as subject to the same
psychological principles.
4. Learning approaches recognize the
importance of past events in the
development of learned behaviors.
However, programs for behavior
change always deal with current
events in the environment which are
maintaining the problem behaviors.
30
Why is learning theory
or any theory important?
The kind of theory you have about why behavior
occurs affects the strategy you will select in trying
to deal with problem behaviors:
Example: Nine-year old Paul has been identified
by his teacher as "hyperactive." A mental
health team met to discuss Paul's case.
Each had his or her own theory about the
source of Paul's problems and strategies for
how the problem should be handled:
a. The psychiatrist said the Paul's
hyperactivity was a symptom of "minimal
brain dysfunction" and should thus be
treated with medication, special education,
and therapy sessions
b. The social worker indicated that she felt
that Paul's problem lay in his family and
prescribed family counseling
c. The school psychologist (a latent behavior
therapist) said, "No. Let's look at Paul's
behavior in the school environment. What
is Paul doing to be labeled hyperactive?
When does he do these things? What
happens when he does? Let's work within
the school environment to change the
contingencies supporting these behaviors."
31
How new behaviors are
learned
A. REINFORCEMENT
Reinforces (or positive
consequences are events
following a behavior which
increases the probability that the
behavior will occur again. A
behavior has been reinforced by
something only if it increases in
frequency; thus, a rein forcer is
defined by its effect on behavior.
32
Learning Theory
Examples
Situation
Response
Immediate
Consequence
Long-Term
Effect
Father and
child are
shopping in
a
department
store on a
hot
afternoon
and both
are very
tired
The child
(uncharacteristi
cally)
follows father
around the
store quietly
without
complaining
Father turns to the
child and
says, "You've been
such a
good girl. Let's go
and buy an
ice cream and sit
down for a
while.
On future
shopping
excursions, the
child is more
likely to follow
her
Father quietly.
Father is
watching
the Super
bowl game
on TV
Two of the kids
are playing in
the same room
and are being
extremely noisy
Father gives them
each a quarter so
that they will go to
the store and not
interfere with his TV
The kids are
more likely to
play
noisily when
father is
watching TV in
similar
situations in the
future
33
Impact of Reinforcers
• These two example illustrate
how desirable and undesirable
behavior may be strengthened
through the use of
reinforcement.
• For many behaviors that occur
frequently, there are a number
of reinforcers occurring.
34
Behavior/
Reinforcement
Behavior
Possible Rein forcers
Attend a football game
See our team win
Cook dinner
Compliments
Going to Dairy Queen
Eating a sundae
Crying
Empathy
Working long hours
Boss's praise
Eating less
Fit into a smaller size
Praising someone
Praise from others
Fighting
Peer praise and winning
Going to work
Salary with which to buy things
Pouting
Attention/winning something
Presenting
Having high ratings from participants
Going crazy
Not having to take care of
responsibilities/ being taken care of
35
Behavior/
Reinforcement
Behavior
Going to work on
any particular day
Possible Rein forcers
Getting salary
Getting work done -- feeling of accomplishment
Getting to see co-workers you enjoy being around
Thinking others see you as responsible
Keeping up to date on organization happenings
Family Teachers
visiting with a
teacher of a youth
in their home
Gaining information about youth's progress to help
in working with him in school areas
Getting compliments from teacher about working
with youth
Anticipating getting high ratings from this teacher
on the consumer evaluation
Feeling of accomplishment for getting teacher visit
done
Getting out of the home for a while and enjoying
different stimuli and people
Anticipating approval from supervisor
36
REMEMBER:
When Treatment Planning
• If the above behaviors on the
left do not increase or maintain
over time, then the "possible
rein forcer?' on the right may
not be reinforcing at all. If the
behaviors on the left actually
decrease, then the "possible
rein forcer" may actually be a
punisher. One person's rein
forcer may be another person's
punisher.
37
Maximizing the
Effectiveness of
Reinforcers
a. Select rein forcers that are readily
available.
b. Present the rein forcer as quickly
as possible after a response is
made. A basic principal of
behavior is that immediate
reinforcement is more effective
than delayed reinforcement.
c. Use rein forcers that don't require
a great deal of time.
d. Use rein forcers - that can be
used over and over without
causing rapid satiation.
38
How New Behaviors are
Learned
B. SHAPING
1. Shaping is a procedure used to establish
a behavior that is not presently
performed by an individual through the
use of positive reinforcement. Since the
behavior has a zero level of occurrence,
it is not possible to increase its
frequency simply by waiting until it
occurs and then reinforce it. Instead,
behaviors which resemble the desired
behavior are reinforced. Shaping is thus
defined as the development of a new
behavior by the successive
reinforcement of closer approximations
to the desired behavior and the gradual
withdrawal of reinforcement for
previously reinforced approximations of
the behavior.
39
How New Behaviors are
Learned
•
2.
Example: As children learn to talk, their parents
begin by reinforcing any sounds that are distant
approximations of real words, e.g. "ook" or "kuk"
for "cookie." Gradually, parents may require closer
and closer approximations in order for the
response to be reinforced, e.g. "ookie" and later
"cookie.“
Using Shaping Effectively
a.
b.
c.
d.
Decide on an effective rein forcer
Keep your eye on the goal behavior. Clear
specification of the goal behavior you are
trying to obtain is important so that you don't
inadvertently reinforce irrelevant responses.
Select an appropriate starting point. This
depends entirely on the goal behavior and the
presence and frequency of approximations in
the individual's response repertoire.
In carrying out shaping, several questions may
arise. These include:
a.
b.
How large should the steps be?
How long should one remain on each step?
What should be done if the behavior begins
to disintegrate?
40
How New Behaviors are
Learned
•
There are no set answers to these questions.
Generally, the steps should not be so large that
the individual experiences failure and previous
approximations are lost through lack of
reinforcement (extinction). Before moving to a
new step, be sure that the individual is able to
perform the one he is on consistently. If the
behaviors begin to disintegrate, it may mean
that you have moved too quickly and you should
return to the previous step.
E. Combine prompts and instructions with
shaping. The use of prompts makes the shaping
process much more rapidly. Prompts should be
gradually faded until the behaviors occur
consistently without prompts.
F. Strengthen the newly acquired behavior
by providing many opportunities to practice and
use continuous reinforcement until the
behaviors are consistently occurring and then
gradually shift to intermittent reinforcement.
41
How New Behaviors are
Learned
C, CHAINING
•
1.A similar procedure may be used for more
complex behaviors. This procedure is called
chaining. Many behaviors consist of sequences
or chains of behaviors. The links in the chain.
are composed of simpler behavioral
components. Chaining is accomplished by
taking simple behaviors already in the
repertoire of the individual and combining them
into more complex behaviors by making
reinforcement contingent on the production of
the entire response chain.
Example: Eating can be broken down into the
following components: placing food on a spoon,
bending arm, opening mouth, inserting spoon in
mouth, removing empty spoon, chewing food,
and swallowing. If each of these responses is
present in the individual's repertoire, they can
be elicited as a chain through the use of
prompts and reinforcement may be given
contingent on the response chain.
42
How New Behaviors are
Learned
•
2. Using Chaining Effectively.
-Decide on an effective rein forcer.
-Identify the goal behavior and
determine whether the links are
already in the individual's response
repertoire. If all the links are present,
proceed with the chaining
procedure. When links are absent
from the individual's response
repertoire, shaping and
reinforcement should be used to
strengthen the components so that
then they may be combined into a
chain.
-If the goal behavior is very complex,
small sub-chains may be taught first.
Later these sub-chains may be
linked together to achieve the goal
behavior.
43
How New Behaviors are
Learned
–
–
Use prompts or cues. Verbal
directions, gestures, modeling,
written instructions, etc. may
effectively shorten the time required
to establish a behavior chain.
Prompts should be gradually faded
out until the behaviors occur
consistently without the prompts.
Provide many opportunities to
practice and provide continuous
reinforcement until behaviors are
consistently occurring.
44
How New Behaviors are
Learned
• D. FADING
– An important adjunct to the shaping and chaining
procedure is fading. Fading is the gradual removal
of prompts or cues which may be used to help elicit
the desired responses. In fading, while the goal
behaviors or approximations to goal behaviors are
consistently reinforced, the prompts or cues that
served to elicit the behaviors are slowly and
progressively diminished. The procedure is
designed to develop a behavior that is emitted in
response to naturally occurring cues in the
environment and is not dependent on artificial
prompts or cues.
– Example: In the example of eating behaviors given
above, the various component behavior may have
initially been elicited by prompts such as, "First, I
would like you to place food on your spoon, ..."
These verbal descriptions may have been paired
with modeling the desired behavior sequence.
Gradually, the modeling and later the verbal
prompts would be dropped until natural cues, such
as being seated in the dining room with a plate of
food in front of the individual, were sufficient to elicit
the response chain.
45
How New Behaviors are
Learned
• .E. INTERMITTENT
REINFORCEMENT
– Since in most instances the natural
environment does not reinforce every
occurrence of a particular response, after
new behaviors have been acquired and
are occurring consistently, it may be
desirable to move from continuous to
intermittent reinforcement of the
response. Intermittent reinforcement is a
schedule of reinforcement in which a
behavior is reinforced only some of the
times that it occurs, rather than every time
(continuous reinforcement). It strengthens
behaviors already established by
continuous reinforcement so that the
behavior will be maintained for longer
periods without reinforcement and thus,
the behaviors will resist extinction.
46
Using Intermittent
Reinforcement
Behavior
Intermittent
Reinforcement
Inserting coins and pulling
lever on slot machine
Occasionally getting a pile of coins
form machine
Cleaning one’s house every
day
Occasionally having a visitor drop
in and remark on how neat it is
Frequently lying about one’s
whereabouts
Occasionally being believed
A two year old crying every
night before going to bed
Occasionally parents “give in” and
let the child stay up
Working hard on school
studies every night
Getting good grades on tests
A youth Participation actively
and regularly in family
conferences
A Family Teacher periodically
telling youth what a good leader
he is
47
How New Behaviors are
Learned
• Moving from continuous to intermittent
reinforcement should be gradual so that
the behavior does not extinguish. If the
behavior does begin to disintegrate, go
back to continuous reinforcement and
much more gradually to a leaner
schedule of reinforcement requiring either
a progressively longer period to elapse
between reinforcements or progressively
more responses to be made in order for
reinforcement to occur.
• Intermittent reinforcement has these
other benefits:
– It helps prevent satiation from too much of one
kind of reinforcement.
– It promotes self-reinforcement since the
individual can no longer rely on external
reinforcement each time he/she performs the
behavior.
48
HOW OLD BEHAVIORS
MAY BE REDUCED
– A. EXTINCTION
• Extinction is a procedure in which a
behavior that has been previously
reinforced is no longer reinforced.
Ultimately, the consistent nonreinforcement of the behavior tends
to result in a reduction of that
behavior.
49
Behavior/ Extinction
Behavior
Possible Extinction Procedure
Clients saying bizarre
statements
Counselors ignore statements
Employee performs
poorly
Employer withholds raise
Husband complains
about wife’s cooking
No response from wife
Youth waives hand
frantically to answer
teacher’s question
Teacher ignores hand waver and calls
on someone else
Youth doesn't clean up
room as well as he
usually does
Family Teacher doesn't give him any
positive points
50
How Old Behaviors May
be Reduced
• Using extinction effectively.
– All sources of reinforcement must be
identified and withheld. Otherwise, you
may end up with an intermittent
reinforcement schedule which will
make extinction even more difficult.
– Maintain extinction conditions for a
sufficient time. Frequently with
extinction, the behavior may get worse
before it begins to decrease in
frequency. This is called an "extinction
burst." Extinction may also induct
aggressive responses. Because of the
delayed effect of these procedures,
extinction may be contraindicated for
certain kinds of behaviors.
– Combine extinction with other
procedures, particularly reinforcement
of incompatible behaviors.
51
How Old Behaviors May
be Reduced
•
Before deciding to use extinction, ask yourself the
following questions:
– Can you tolerate the undesired behavior temporarily?
– Can you tolerate a temporary worsening of the
behavior?
– Is the behavior a non-aggressive one that is not likely
to be imitated by peers?
– Are the rein forcers that are currently maintaining the
behavior known?
– Can the reinforcement be withheld?
– Can an alternative behavior be identified and can it be
reinforced?
•
Once you have been able to answer yes to all the
above questions, you can begin your extinction
program for the undesired behavior while
simultaneously reinforcing the alternative behavior. If
your answer is no to any of the above questions, you
should consider some other procedure.
52
RESPONSE COST
– Response cost refers to the
contingent withdrawal of
specified amounts of rein forcers
contingent upon a behavior. The
individual may "pay" a certain
amount from his reinforcement
reserve for having performed the
behavior and thus the term
"response cost." Response cost
is another method of decreasing
undesirable behavior.
53
Behavior/Response
Cost
Behavior
Response Cost
Speeding
Paying a fine
Fighting
2,500 point fine
Breaking a college
dormitory window
Off-sides in football
Breakage costs
Poor school note
Point penalty
Yardage penalties
54
Using Response Cost
Effectively
– Allow for a build-up of reinforcement reserve
before response cost is used.
– Penalize sparingly. Severe penalties may
cause the individual to withdraw from the
situation and be unmotivated to improve his
behavior or they may trigger aggressive
behavior. When large penalties are in order,
provide opportunities for the individual to earn
back some of the penalty by engaging in
appropriate behavior.
– Communicate the rules clearly. Rules function
as cues for the individual that certain
behaviors will be penalized and that others will
not. The individual can learn to make
discriminations more rapidly when the rules
are available to him.
– Combine response cost with other
procedures. Response cost temporarily
reduces the occurrence of specific behaviors
and can be combined with reinforcement of
incompatible behavior to effectively suppress
the undesirable behaviors and increase the
likelihood of more appropriate behavior.
55
PUNISHMENT
– Punishers are unpleasant or
painful events that, when
presented after a behavior is
performed, decrease the
likelihood that the behavior will
occur in the future. Thus
punishers, like rein forcers , are
defined by their effect upon
behavior.
– Punishment should be
avoided when you want to
reduce a behavior.
All other procedures should be
considered first since they are
effective and have far fewer side
effects.
56
Behavior/ Punishers
Behavior
Possible Punisher
Fighting
Getting hurt
Getting poor grades
Parent's reprimands
Painting a picture
Getting negative criticism
Running into street
Getting spanked
Coming home late
Being grounded and given
extra chores
Cursing
Getting a slap
Giving someone a compliment
Being called a manipulator
Going to school
Being mocked by friends who
don’t attend school
Stealing a car
Getting five years hard labor
Youth talking back to an adult
Having to clean all the
bathrooms
57
Punishers Can Have
Negative Impact on Youth
– The person giving the punishment tends
to become viewed as a punisher
him/herself and as such, will be avoided
(e.g. a youth skipping a particular class to
avoid a teacher who reprimanded him.
– Anything associated with punishment will
tend to take on punishing characteristics
and be avoided (e.g. a youth always
dislikes reading because he was taught
by a teacher who always reprimanded him
for his errors and never encouraged him
to improve).
– The act of giving punishment is readily
imitated by others (e.g. children are
sarcastic with each other after seeing
parents punishing through sarcasm).
58
Punishers Can Have
Negative Impact on Youth
–
–
Undesirable peer reactions may occur when
one individual has been singled out for
punishment frequently. For example, the
punished person may be avoided, ridiculed
or generally avoided. On the other hand, the
"underdog" effect may occur where the
punished individual receives peer support or
sympathy. This peer reinforcement would
oppose the effects of punishment and
perhaps end up increasing the undesired
behavior.
Punishment can cause the individual to
think of him/herself negatively, especially if
the punishment included aversive
statements directed at the individual rather
than at the behavior (e.g., "Your are a bad
boy." -- "Can't you do anything right?" --or -"Are you going to be a baby all your life?")
59
Punishers Can Have
Negative Impact on Youth
–
Punishment doesn't teach any new
good behaviors and instead may
produce some undesirable
behaviors which may be used to
avoid punishment:
•
•
•
•
–
Running away Lying
Cheating
Hating
Withdrawal
Punishment may become addictive
to the user. Because it results in a
quick suppression of undesirable
behavior, it can tempt the user to
rely heavily on it and neglect the use
of positive reinforcement for
desirable behavior. This may
produce a vicious cycle of heavier
and heavier doses of punishment to
control the behavior.
60
HOW TO DETERMINE
WHEN AND WHERE
BEHAVIORS WILL OCCUR
• A. GENERALIZATION AND
DISCRIMINATION
– Generalization is a process through which
a behavior learned or strengthened in one
stimulus situation tends to occur in other
situations. Generalization can lead to
appropriate or inappropriate behavior.
• Examples:
– A young child learns to say "dog" in
response to pictures of dogs and also
labels any dogs he sees in his
neighborhood appropriately.
– Another child learned to say "dog" in
response to pictures of dogs and then
generalized this response to any four
footed creature.
61
HOW TO DETERMINE
WHEN AND WHERE
BEHAVIORS WILL OCCUR
–
The opposite of generalization is
discrimination. When a behavior occurs
more readily in the presence of one stimulus
or situation than in another, we say that the
individual has discriminated between the
two stimuli or situations. In the first example
above, the child had learned to generalize
the response "dog" from pictures of dogs to
any dogs in his environment. He had also
learned to discriminate between those
characteristics which are common to all
dogs and those that separate dogs from
other four footed animals. He was thus able
to use the response "dog" appropriately. The
discrimination was learned as the result of
the child being reinforced for appropriate
use of the word dog and the extinction of
inappropriate usage of the word.
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Obtaining Effective
Generalization
•
Since it is not feasible to follow our youth
around to reinforce the occurrence of
behaviors we have taught in one
situation in every situation we would like
the behaviors to occur, there are several
general approaches that will increase the
likelihood that appropriate generalization
will occur:
Emphasize the common elements
between the situations in which you have
reinforced the youth's appropriate
responses and those in which you would
like the responses to occur.
Example: A Family Teacher has worked with one
of her youth on being quiet in church and at the
movies. The youth's class is going to a museum
for the first time. The Family Teacher may
emphasize the similarities between the
situations, noting that in church or the movies,
one must be quiet so that everyone may listen
without being disturbed and that likewise in
museums, one must be quiet so that others may
enjoy the exhibits.
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Obtaining Effective
Generalization
– Maximize the number of similar situations in which
you have reinforced the behavior. The greater the
number of stimuli or situations in the presence of
which the behaviors are reinforced, the more likely
it is that the behaviors will generalize to other
stimulus situations (e.g., if accepting criticism
appropriately has been reinforced in your home and
at school, it is more likely that it will generalize to
job or sports situations).
• Regular reinforcement of the behavior in similar
situations and extinction of the behavior in other
dissimilar ones simultaneously teaches the
youth a generalized response and a
discrimination.
– Usually naturally occurring reinforcement will
maintain the behaviors in the new environment.
When you are not sure that this will occur
automatically, you may attempt to change the
reinforcement contingencies through prompts to
other people in that environment to attend to and
reinforce the youth's appropriate behaviors (e.g.,
you may have been working on the youth's ability to
accept criticism in the home. You may want to
prompt teachers to attend to these behaviors at
school and reinforce them if they occur.)
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References
• Kanfer and Phillips, Learning
Foundations of
Behavior Therapy. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1970.
• Martin and Pear, Behavior
Modification: What it is and how to
do it. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1978
• Sulzer and Mayer,Behavior
Modification
Procedures for School Personnel.
Hinsdale, New York: Dryden Press,
Inc. 1972
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Reinforcers Menu
• Youth:
• Date:
• Consumable Reinforcers: What
does the youth like to eat or
drink?
– What foods does the youth like
to east most?
•
•
•
•
Regular meals
Health foods
Junk foods
Sweets
66
Reinforcers Menu
– What beverages does the youth
like to drink most?
•
•
•
•
Milk
Soft Drinks
Juices
Other
• Activity Reinforcers: What
things does the youth like to
do?
• Activities in the home:
• Activities in the Yard:
67
Reinforcers Menu
• Free activities away from home:
• Activities you pay to do away form
home:
• Passive activities:
• Manipulative Reinforcers:
– What kinds of games or toys
does the youth like to play with?
• Possessional Reinforcers:
– What kinds of things does the
youth like to possess?
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Reinforcers Menu
• Social Reinforcers:
– What kinds of verbal or physical
stimulation does the youth like to
receive from others (specify
who)?
• Verbal
• Physical contact
• Self Reinforcers:
– What kinds of self statements
does the youth make that seem
to motivate him/her?
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Social Learning Theory
•
Define the following terms:
–
–
–
–
•
Antecedent:
Behaviors:
Consequences:
Rein forcer:
There are four factors which determine
the effectiveness of rein forcers. They
are the principles of deprivation,
contingency, immediacy, and size.
Please define these concepts:
–
–
–
–
Principle of Deprivation:
Principle of Contingency:
Principle of Immediacy:
Principle of Size:
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Social Learning Theory
• Schedules of Reinforcement:
– Continuous schedules of
reinforcement, or reinforcing the
behavior every time it occurs is used
to __________a new skill or
____________a weak skill.
– Intermittent schedules of
reinforcement are used to
______________newly learned skills.
• Consistent non-reinforcement of
the behavior will tend to result in a
reduction of the behavior. This is
known as extinction. In order for the
extinction to be effective all sources
of reinforcement must be
_________and _______
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Social Learning Theory
•
•
•
•
Inadvertent extinction occurs
when the shift from
continuous reinforcement to
_____________reinforcemen
t is made too quickly for the
youth. It may cause newly
learned skills to become
extinct.
Define Shaping:
Define Response Cost:
When using response cost,
some important things to
keep in mind are:
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Social Learning Theory
•
•
Define Punishment:
List some dangerous side
effects of punishment:
– a. b. c. d. e.
•
Define the concepts as they
relate to Social Learning
Theory:
– Generalization:
– Discrimination:
73
Social Learning Theory
A. B. C.’s
• Antecedent
• Behavior
• Consequence
74
Social Learning Theory
•
Match the following behavior descriptions with the
learning theory principle which most closely applies.
Place the letter of the correct principle next to the
number of the example. In other words, what principle
is probably responsible for the resulting behavior
(response) in each case.
•
All of these examples pertain to a youth's first contact
with a skate board.
– Tim saw it and tried it. He fell off and broke his
leg. He didn't try it again.
– Bill saw it and tried it. He was successful and had
fun. He continued to do it.
– Jim saw it and tried it. He was successful, but
didn't particularly enjoy it. His parents
encouraged him and allowed him to get out of
chores to have practice time. He continued to do
it.
– Joe saw it and tried it. He was successful and had
fun but ... He missed opportunities to date his girl
friend when he practiced. He stopped doing it.
A = Negative reinforcement
B = Positive reinforcement
C = Punishment
D = Response cost
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Principles of Behavior
and Learning Theory
Pre-Service Workshop
This training presentation is available for download at:
www.utahparenting.org
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© 2007 Utah Youth Village.