Making The Case For
Corrections Education:
A Review Of Policy Research
Presented To The 2006 California Jail Programs Association
Conference
October 6, 2006
By Dr. K. Garth-James, Associate Professor & Director,
Public Policy Service Administration Program
Kentucky Wesleyan College, KY 42301
Consultant, KAGL & Affiliates
PO Box * Elk Grove, CA 95857
www.kagl.info
Purposes

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Review the trends nation-wide and in California that
have an effect on crime choice.
Explain crime theories as plausible reasons for
committing crime.
Examine the education (work training) services on
ex-offenders released from corrections (jails) back into
their neighborhoods.
Examine the long-term prospects and outcomes of
ex-offenders with education services during
post-release.
Identify what we (law makers, educators, corrections
officials, sheriffs and probation) can learn from
assessing policy research about education and exoffender recidivism and reentry.
Note

The results of this analysis do not suggest
that education (and employment training)
guarantee ex-offenders successful
reintegration into their neighborhoods.
Extant research indicates that other
factors (alcohol and drug addiction, poor
family support, mental and health issues)
which lead to the ex-offenders failure,
must also be addressed to lead to positive
outcomes during post-release.
Background: Jane Doe’s Story
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Jane Doe is from small town just
30 miles from an urban city. Jobs
are scarce; and, low paying jobs
are in the shoe factory.
Father died in a war. Mother
works several jobs to raise 4 kids.
She and Jane don’t get along; “My
mom always calls me slow and
ugly,” says Jane.
Jane is the second oldest,
dropped out of school to work and
help with family expenses.
Jane moved to the urban city to
“get a better job, more pay” and
found prostitution, drugs and a
hard life.
She is now 20 years, in jail and
trying to understand why. “What to
do?”
Jane meets a correctional
counselor who encourages her to
finish high school. She meets a
The programs we offer to the
inmates allow them to work
on unresolved issues while
they are incarcerated. The
programs will also allow
them to learn different ways
to handle things and try to
change their lives and
criminal behaviors, rather
than, " Just Serving Time".
Martinsville City
Jail, VA.
History Of Jails

For those of you who think that the term sheriff originated in the
American old west, think again. The office of the sheriff can be traced
back to biblical times and the Book of Daniel in its account
of Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon. The modern county sheriffs
departments origins date back to the 9th century England’s King Alfred
the Great. IT is the oldest law enforcement office within the commonlaw system. In the United States, the office of sheriff is a direct
continuation of its English predecessor,; its powers and duties almost
the same as in England over nine centuries ago. For example, jail
administration provides an important criminal justice function to
maintain law and order and preserve “domestic tranquility” (Former
Deputy Sheriff Boyd, Suffolk County, Mass., 2005) A sheriff is
responsible to the citizens. There are the political pressures that sheriffs
and deputies must confront. However, each locality is responsible for
providing some funding to the sheriff so hat jails may be built and
maintained, deputies hired and duties of the office carried out in a timely
and efficient manner.
Theories of Crime: From Neighborhoods to
Incarceration

Explain Why People Commit Crime. What are the theories?

Social Disorganization and Conflict Theories
 Biological. People born or have genetic or neurological dysfunctions;
biochemical imbalances.

Rational. People reason that crime is more profitable than punishment if
get caught.
 Chicago School. Social environment and behavior produces crime, social
and cultural deviance theories and strain theory.
 Conflict Theory. Societal and political forces produce crime. Religion and
crime (lack of morals); income and crime (lack of money).
Does Poverty Cause Crime? “Poverty Does Not Cause Crime" by The
John Howard Society of Alberta. Crime and Criminals. Tamara L. Roleff, Ed.
Opposing Viewpoints® Series. Greenhaven Press, 2000. "Poverty
Contributes to Gang-Related Crime" by Donna Hunzeker. Juvenile Crime.
A.E. Sadler, Ed. Opposing Viewpoints® Series. Greenhaven Press, 1997.
Does Incarceration control crime? Crimes are defined to meet the needs
of those in control of society. People want to feel safe, and the criminals
locked away.
Explain what is the purpose of incarceration.
 Utilitarianism view of Jeremy Bent ham (1748-1832) believed
punishment has 4 goals: prevent crime, criminal commit lesser offense,
dissuade criminal from committing crimes, and protect society.

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Projected Trends In California
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By 2025, 25 percent of the 48
million Californians will be
foreign born (Latinos).
Inland cities will grow by 30%;
central valley towns will become
2nd largest region; and, urban
cities ( LA) will experience
unemployment, crime among
adults with poor literacy (or no
literacy) and work skills.
California will be the 6th largest
economy in the world.
Will county sheriffs and jail
administration be affected by
demographic and economic
changes? (Source: CDE
presentation, CCAE, 2006)
Projected Trends Jobs:
Service Industry Vs. Manufacturing
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Source: Public Policy Institute of California
Services Industries, the bars
on the far left, show the
greatest increase
Trade Industries show a
slight increase
Employment in government
jobs plateau, and jobs in
Manufacturing, as well as the
rest of the industries, on the
decline
What does this shift in
employment demand mean
to us in adult education?
What does it mean to our
economy?
What connection to the
crime? Strain Theory?
Projected Trends: Wage Earnings


Growth in population
favors groups that have
typically attained lower
levels of education – nonforeign born Americans in
poverty; immigrants and
children of immigrants.
Potential mismatch
between education
requirements of new
economy and amount of
education of our future
population.
Source: Public Policy Institute of California, 2005
Trends in Income Earnings

The Median Family Income
rates further show the plight
that the traditional racial
and ethnic “minorities” are
faced with…This slide
shows…among US born
Whites, Asians, Blacks and
Hispanics…

US born Whites and Asians
have the highest median
family income at $77,000.

US born Blacks and
Hispanics have a median
family income of $50,000.

Foreign-born Whites, and
Asians not born
Southeast Asia, have a
median family income of
$67,000.

Foreign born Hispanics
have the lowest median
family income of $31,000.
These individuals with the
lowest median family
income are the majority of
the population that need
adult literacy and work
training.
Trends in High School Education
California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE)
Trends, Theories and Crime
Jobs in industries thought of as “low-wage” or
for the “less educated,” are fewer in the high
tech economy.
 But, service employment includes business,
professional, entertainment, recreation, health,
and education. Compared to manufacturing,
these services require higher levels of
education.
What about poverty and crime?

Trends in Poverty for Non-Foreign Born Americans
EPI Economic Policy Institute—Author’s analysis of March population survey data
U.S. Poverty Rates of Nativity Status, 1994-2000
Trends, Education and Poverty
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Family income does impact children’s
academic readiness and academic success
Parents in poverty for both native and nonnative residents is a determinant of the
percent of children in poverty
Only the children of college graduates have
avoided increased poverty rates
Poverty status is related to problems of crime,
recidivism, and reentry.
Crime Rates
Demographics and Crime
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Parent’s criminal
history does have an
effect on children’s
involvement
Ethnic minorities
(African-American,
Latino) are at a higher
risk for arrest,
incarceration and poor
reintegration and
reentry once returned
to their neighborhoods.
Source: BJS, Corrections
Surveys, 2006)
Jail Facilities
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At midyear 2004, 713,990 inmates were held in the Nation's
local jails, up from 691,301 at midyear 2003.
In 2004, jails reported adding 19,132 beds during the previous
12 months, bringing the total rated capacity to 755,603. 94% of
the rated capacity was occupied at midyear 2004.
In Indian country on June 30, 2003, 70 facilities were operating
with the capacity to hold 2,222 persons. These jails held 1,826
inmates in custody and supervised an additional 82 persons in
the community.
At midyear 2004 Prison and Jail populations:
The Nation's prisons and jails incarcerated over 2.1 million
persons.
In both jails and prisons, there were 123 female inmates per
100,000 women in the United States, compared to 1,348 male
inmates per 100,000 men.
A total of 2,477 State prisoners were under age 18.
The number of inmates in custody in local jails rose by 22,689;
in State prison by 15,375; and in Federal prison by 10,000.
Part II
Exercise
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Define Recidivism
Define Reintegration
Define Reentry
What is the value of research?
How should policy makers use research to
make decisions about jail operations and
management?
Do you use research in your work?
The Problem


Crime control policies resulted in “record numbers” being
incarcerated in federal and state institutions (GAO Report,
2001).
Although serving longer sentences than “a decade ago,” many
are not serving life sentences and will return to their/our
neighborhoods (GAO, 2001)

Offenders released from correctional facilities (jails and
prisons), face challenges that seem insurmountable to
reintegration back into our neighborhoods.

The racial differences in the crime rate are one of the most
controversial areas of the criminal justice system

Employment, education and imprisonment trends are related to
theories of crime.

The R’s have an effect on communities and ex-offenders:
Time Served: Return To Our
Community is Certain
Source: Gaines & Miller, 2005
Doing Time In The Neighborhood:
Probation In America
Source: Gaines & Miller, 2005
Related Policy and Research


On March 28, 1990, Senate Hearing on ISL and DSL, organized by Dr.
Garth-James for Senator Kenneth Maddy (deceased), heard expert
testimony that examined the relationship between sentencing laws and
sentencing purposes (punishment, rehabilitation).
Research in the 1990’s, revealed California faced the challenges of
sentencing and housing lower-level custody “non-violent” offenders to
secure facilities:
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In the mid-1990s, the Little Hoover Commission released several reports
that examined the crime control strategy of prevention and urged that it
be made “more of a priority;” and that juvenile and adult corrections
consider rehabilitation programs (education, vocational training,
counseling and treatment) effect on and successful reintegration.
Public policy such as passage of the Substance Abuse and Crime
Prevention Act of 2000 (Proposition 36) amended sentencing laws to
divert drug offenders (convicted of possession of one gram of cocaine)
from incarceration (prison/jails) to community-based treatment
alternatives.
Policies created new felony categories which amended sentencing laws to
divert “non-violent” offenders (property, burglary) and drug offenders from
prison to local custody (jails).
Crime Trends Today

Crime, Race, and Poverty
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The highest crime rates in the United States are
consistently recorded in the low-income, urban
neighborhoods with the highest unemployment
rates,
Lack of education, another handicap most often
faced by low-income citizens, also seems to
correlate with criminal activity,
Official crime data seem to indicate a strong
correlation between minority status and crime:
African Americans are overrepresented in
arrest-, crime-, and victimization rates.
Policy, Research and Recidivism
In 1990-2000s, Recidivism studies indicate an association between education and
crime and employability and crime:

Texas CJ Policy Council evaluates prisoner education and vocational
programs and “prospects” for lowering recidivism rates reveal positive
association (C.E., 2002) .
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The Forensic Case Management Program investigated jail recidivism factors and
found that ex-offenders (clients) were “likely to be returned to jail” if mentally ill,
homeless, and formerly incarcerated in a large urban facility” (Health & Social
Work, 1995)
University of Massachusetts at Dartmouth, research on expanding degreegranting higher-education programs to jailed inmates “greatly reduced recidivism”
(Chronicles, 1992).
In West Virginia, Marshall University research findings at Huntsville Correctional
Facility, indicate prisoners enrolled in GED and vocational training reported a
recidivism of 6.71%; no educational participants recidivism rate was 26%
(C.E.,2003).
Syracuse University research of 100 women in New York Correctional facility and
enrolled in vocational plumbing program, found that “ the program emphasized
self-esteem, hands-on work, building confidence, literacy” leading to reduction in
recidivism through re-arrest, re-incarceration.
In 2004, the Russell Sage and National Science Foundations supported the
research found in “Impact of Incarceration on Wage Mobility and Inequality,” which
indicates the “mass incarceration of low-education” ethnic minorities “conceals the
unemployment and inequality in wages” for this population (p.2).
Education and Employment Policy

In 1990s, federal policies created the Workforce
Investment Act to replace the JTPA(1980s) with
emphasis on:
 Employment training (or re-training) for adults
(Title I)
 Adult Literacy for “the most in need” and
“hardest to serve” adults (Title II, Sections 231
and Section 225, for educating the
incarcerated, with nearly $600 million dollars.
Employment and Education Policy
In California

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California WIA, Title I, supports One-Stops services
employment training and retraining for clients.
California WIA, Title II, Section 231/225 grant totals about $78
million to serve 1.4 million adults (278 literacy providers).
In 2003, the Public Policy Institute of California, released a
report that supports the policy purposes and findings of the
federal governments:
 Demographic “determinants of education” is the “single
most” important factor to understand why ethnic/racial
minority adults have low literacy. (62% of men and 63% of
women have not completed 9-12 grade/no diploma, p. 3).
 There is “rising” value of education and employment training
to the California labor market. Ex-offenders are part of that
labor market.
FASTEST GROWING OCCUPATIONS OVER THE NEXT 10 YEARS
Occupation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Medical assistants
Network systems and data communications analysts
Physician assistants
Social and human service assistants
Home health aides
Medical records and health information technicians
Physical therapist aides
Computer software engineers, applications
Computer software engineers, systems software
Physical therapist assistants
Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors
Database administrators
Veterinary technologists and technicians
Hazardous materials removal workers
Dental hygienists
Occupational therapist aides
Dental assistants
Personal and home care aides
Self-enrichment education teachers
Computer systems analysts
Occupational therapist assistants
Environmental engineers
Postsecondary teachers
Network and computer systems administrators
Environmental science and protection technicians
Preschool teachers, except special education
Computer and information systems managers
Physical therapists
Occupational therapists
Respiratory therapists
Employment (000s) Expected Growth
2002
2012
Number Percent
365
579
215
59%
186
292
106
57%
63
94
31
49%
305
454
149
49%
580
859
279
48%
147
216
69
47%
37
54
17
46%
394
573
179
46%
281
409
128
45%
50
73
22
45%
183
264
81
44%
110
159
49
44%
53
76
23
44%
38
54
16
43%
148
212
64
43%
8
12
4
43%
266
379
113
42%
608
854
246
40%
200
281
80
40%
468
653
184
39%
18
26
7
39%
47
65
18
38%
1,581
2,184
603
38%
251
345
94
37%
28
38
10
37%
424
577
153
36%
284
387
103
36%
137
185
48
35%
82
110
29
35%
86
116
30
35%
Most significant source of education or training
Moderate-term on-the-job training
Bachelor's degree
Bachelor's degree
Moderate-term on-the-job training
Short-term on-the-job training
Associate degree
Short-term on-the-job training
Bachelor's degree
Bachelor's degree
Associate degree
Postsecondary vocational award
Bachelor's degree
Associate degree
Moderate-term on-the-job training
Associate degree
Short-term on-the-job training
Moderate-term on-the-job training
Short-term on-the-job training
Work experience in a related occupation
Bachelor's degree
Associate degree
Bachelor's degree
Doctoral degree
Bachelor's degree
Associate degree
Postsecondary vocational award
Bachelor's or higher degree, plus work experience
Master's degree
Bachelor's degree
Associate degree
High
High
SomeSchool
Dropout
School
9.2%
5.3%
4.8%
4.0%
3.1%
2.9%
Some
High
School
Graduate
College
Some
College
Associate
Degree
Bachelor’s
Degree
Master’s
Degree
$22,400
$29,200
$34,300
$36,400
$47,000
$56,600
Do Offenders Need Literacy?

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Immigration Policy, focus on security, education and employment
training of immigrant (incarcerated) adults.
The Refugee Resettlement Act allocates millions of dollars for
integration services that include adult literacy and employment
training, some are former lawbreakers.
Federal Law for Adult Literacy (WIA, Even Start, Barbara Bush
Foundation Grant), including families of ex-offenders.
Research from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy
(NAALs) Survey 2003, indicates 63 million adults have literacy
deficiency and a “significant” number are incarcerated.
In August, 2005, Focus on Basics Connecting Research to
Practice, dedicated the entire volume to corrections education
research and understanding how long-term outcomes for exoffenders returned to our communities with literacy and
employment training can improve chances for employment.
Jail Population In California

At the end 2003, California county jails housed about 76,000
inmates (see chart).
Average Daily Population 1996-2002
85,000
80,000
75,000
70,000
65,000
60,000
55,000
96- 96- 97- 97- 98- 98- 99- 99- 00- 00- 01- 01- 02- 021
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

Source: Jail Profile Annual Report, 2003, California Board of
Corrections.
Correctional Education In California


In 2004-05, there are 32 WIA, Title II, Section
225 programs operating in local jails, or a
halfway house, and community college
prisoner transition program.
In 2004-05, state-funding for Jail Education
totaled nearly $14 million.
California Jail Education

Access to postsecondary education has become increasingly important for
economic success. The enrollment of jail inmates in adult education courses
has increased from 41,000 respectively in 2001-02, to over 50,000 in 2003-04
(see bar chart).
Enrollment in WIA Title II 225 Programs
2003-04
60,000
50,000
40,000
Le arne rs
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
N
Percent(%)

ABE
ESL
ESLCitizens
ASE
33,666
5,618
2
11,676
50,962
66.1
11
0
22.9
100
TOTAL
Source: Comprehensive Student Assessment System Data (CASAS) Data, 2004.
Nearly One-Fourth (1/4) Of the Jail Inmates In Adult
Education Are Age 16-30 Years
Adult Learner by Age in 225/231
and/or EL Civics Programs 2003-04
16-20
6%
21-30
17%
Learner Age
TOTAL
50%
31-40
14%
65 or older
41-50
51-64
1%
9%
3%
Source: CASAS Data, 2004
Nearly Thirty Percent (30%) of Jail Inmates in
Adult Education Speak Spanish
Adult Learner by Native Language in WIA
T itle II 225/231 and/or EL Civics 2003-04
900000
800000
700000
600000
Learners
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
225
231
and/or
ELC
Native Language
English
Spanish
Southeast Asian Languages
Chinese
Tagalog
Russian
Farsi
Other
Total
TOTAL
Nearly Half of the Jail Inmates Have
Less Than 12 Years Of Schooling
Adult Learners in WIA T itle II 225 Programs
by Years of Schooling 2003-04
50000
Learners
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Years in School
Years of Schooling
<=3 years
4 - 6 years
7 - 9 years
13 + years
10 -11 years
TOTAL
12 years
Source CASAS Data 2004
More Than Half Of The Jail Inmates
Are Enrolled In A Career Technical
Certificate Program
Adult Learner in WIA Title II 225 Programs by
Degree 2003-04
60000
50000
Learners
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Degree
None
GED Certificate
High School Diplom a
Technical Certificate
AA or AS
Four Year Graduate
Graduate Student
Other
TOTAL
Source: CASAS Data 2004
Part
III
Education Reduces Crime
Making The Case For Educators To
Develop Stronger
Relationships With Sheriff’s



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Good Relationships Depend On You
Agency Capacity
Intensity and Duration (instruction and
curriculum)
Data Reporting and Performance
(Learning Gains)


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Funding
Budget
Technology
Working around Lock-downs
Public Policy and Community Support
Partnerships Do Work
Making The Case For Sheriffs Working
Effectively With Educators: Understanding
Constraints on Offender Education Programs

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Overcrowding in correctional facilities.
Routines as lock-downs and head counts interrupt training.
Inadequate funding for offender education and vocational
programs.
Inadequate equipment and materials for training programs (Paul,
1991; C.E., 2002).
Inadequate teachers, problems with guards and lack of
administrative support.
Offenders and ex-offenders have poor attitude about literacy and
work training.
Transportation, transitory life-style interrupt services.
Lack of family and community support.
Peer pressure to continue as predator versus contributor.
Making The Case For Coordination:
Understanding How The Jail Facility Effects
Offender Education and Reentry
Making The Case For Community Involvement:
Addressing The Concerns of Recidivism
Making The Case For Opportunity: The Exoffender Returns To The Neighborhood
Ex-offender Reentry Success: What Can Teachers Do?
 Successful literacy and vocational programs are learner centered.
 Use learners strength to shape their learning by sharing results.
 Help with realistic goal-setting. What learning gains can the inmate
learner achieve in 3, 6 months? One year?
 Motivate, build confidence and esteem.
 Recognize that prisoners have high incidence of disabilities, low
academic skills and other challenges.
 Use standardized assessments to accurately pinpoint the literacy
deficiencies and accomplishments of the learner.
 Use computer-assisted instruction and vocational programs.
 Help keep prisoners connected and on track to literacy and employment
training success when they are released back into the community.
Ex-offender Reentry Success: What Can Media, Public and Policy
Makers Do?
 Recognize offenders are returning to our communities either as
predators or contributors.
 Advocate politicians pass and vote for smart policy that support reentry
(family reunification services, victims support, adult literacy, employment
training) and improves ex-offenders readiness to come back home.
Making The Case For Opportunity: The Ex-offender
Returns To The Neighborhood
Ex-offender Reentry Success: What Can Sheriffs and Probation
Officers
Do?
 Use the literacy providers in the community as partners such
as the Literacy Network, Nonprofit literacy providers,
Community Colleges, Library Literacy, and the Adult
Schools.
 Consider expanding employment opportunities such as
vocational training and prison industries—i.e. privatized
workshops and programs located in the jails.
 Coordinate with educators scheduled activities that might
interrupt education (lockdowns, other)
 Use EC 1900 to establish Adult Education programs in your
county jail.
 Encourage offenders to work on their literacy skills
Making The Case For
Education in Jails





What can educators do?
Work with the county sheriffs to establish Adult
Education programs in jails pursuant to the
Education Code Sections 1900 and Budget Item
XXX-158
Structure education activities using evidence-based
curricula and teaching methods
Stress realistic goal-setting so that the offender
participates in tracking their learning
Coordinate education activities with deputies ( elicit
their support)
Making A Case For
Accountability

Ex-offender Reentry Success: What Can
Business Do?


Establish meaningful partnerships with
corrections and build joint ventures work shops
behind bars that offer marketable job skills
training to offenders.
Use the joint venture laws to provide training that
is hands-on, builds confidence, addresses
attitudinal concerns, and pays marketable wages
with appropriate deductions.
Making The Case For
Coordinating With Stakeholders
Ex-offender reentry, what can probation and
community organizations do?
 Remember that probation and community
organizations (drug abuse recovery service
providers, literacy providers, faith-based
service providers) can help reduce the harmful
destabilizing effect upon the ex-offender’s
return to the neighborhood.
 Probation should coordinate support services
for the ex-offender upon reentry.
Summary
Assessing policy and research about the 3Rs
of Recidivism, Reentry and Reintegration
and connection to work helps Make The
Case For Corrections Education Programs
In County Jails
Bridges * HOPE * Fathers *Elk Grove Jail
Women Aftercare
Should the success of Literacy, Work
programs be solely judge by recidivism?
END. THANK YOU