CHAPTER 23: FROM ROOSEVELT TO WILSON IN THE AGE OF PROGRESSIVISM, 1900-1916 (#1)
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Theodore Roosevelt – left to go on safari in Africa, he was an ex-president at the age of 50 and had
turned the White House over to his chosen successor – William Howard Taft
o some of his enemies hoped he wouldn’t return
- Roosevelt – every prepared, took nine extra pairs of eyeglasses and just in case, several expert hunters
as well
o set off an a tour of Europe afterward – attended the funeral of the king of England with the
crowned heads of Europe, dined with the king and queen of Italy, and spent five hours
reviewing troops of the German empire
- Taft though, was not working out as president
- Roosevelt frequently encountered letters from other disappointed Republicans during his travels
- Taft – was puzzled by it all
o intended to continue Roosevelt’s policies, even writing to Roosevelt that he would “see to it
that your judgment in selecting me as your successor and bringing about that succession shall
be vindicated”
- conservative and progressive wings of the Republican party split – Taft often sided with the
conservatives
- thousands gathered to greet Roosevelt when he returned from Europe
o was carrying with him a letter from Taft – “trying to carry out your policies but my method of
doing so has not worked smoothly”
 Roosevelt denied meeting with him, saying that ex-presidents should not visit
Washington
- a year later, there was no longer thought of friendship – only a desperate fight between Taft and
Roosevelt for the Republican presidential nomination
o Roosevelt – bolted and helped form a new party, the Progressive (or “Bull Moose”) party
 created to unseat Taft and capture the White House
- the election of 1912 became one of the most exciting in American history
o also one of the most important – people were worried about the social and economic effects of
urban-industrial growth
 pitted deeply opposed candidates against one another and outlined differing views of
the nation’s future
 brought to the forefront some of the currents of progressive reform
The Spirit of Progressivism
- politically – fostered a reform movement that sought cures for the problems of city, state, and nation
- intellectually – drew on the expertise of the new social sciences and reflected a shift from older
absolutes of class and religion to newer schools of thought that emphasized the role of the
environment in human development and the relative nature of truth
- culturally – inspired fresh modes of expression in dance, film, painting, literature, and architecture
o progressivism – was a set of attitudes as well as a definable movement
- characteristics of progressivism:
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o 1. – progressives acted out of concern about the effects of industrialization and the conditions
of industrial life
 sought to humanize and regulate big business
o 2. – fundamental optimism about human nature, the possibilities of progress, and the capacity
of people to recognize problems and take action to solve them
 “investigate, educate, and legislate” – learn about a problem, inform people about it,
and with the help of an informed public, find and enforce a solution
o 3. – willing to intervene in people’s lives, confident that it was their right to do so
 element of coercion in a number of their ideas
o 4. – tended to turn more and more to the authority of the state and government at all levels in
order to put into effect the reforms they wanted
o 5. – drew on a combination of evangelical Protestantism and the natural and social sciences
 tended to view the environment as a key to reform, thinking (similarly to economists,
sociologists, and other social scientists) that if they could change the environment, they
could change the individual
o 6. – distinctive because it touched virtually the whole nation
 remarkable number of people were caught up in it, giving progressivism a national reach
and a mass base
 drew support from across society
new group appealed to the expanding middle class, prosperous farmers, and skilled laborers –
attracted significant support in the business community
o believed in progress and disliked waste
 were Democrats, Republicans, Socialists, and independents
o believed in a better world and in the ability of people to achieve it
o stressed individual morality and collective action, the scientific method, and the value of expert
opinion
o valued system planning, management, and predictability
o wanted reform and efficiency
 brought people together rather than drive them apart
The Rise of Progressivism
o National Child Labor Committee – lobbied for legislation to regulate the employment and
working conditions of children
o rise of the professions
 professions – law, medicine, religion, business, teaching, and social work – were the
source of much of the leadership of the progressive movement
 attracted young, educated men and women
 were managers, architects, technicians, and accountants
o organized and ran the urban-industrial society
 formed part of a new middle class – members did not derive their status from birth or
inherited wealth
 moved ahead through education and personal accomplishment
o ambitious and self-confident
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thought of themselves as experts who could use their knowledge for the benefit
of society
o formed professional societies
 doctors – wanted to set educational requirements and minimum standards for practice
 American Medical Association (AMA) – made it into a modern national
professional society
 lawyers - formed bar associations, created examining boards, lobbied for regulations
restricting entry into the profession
 teachers – organized the National Education Association and pressed for teacher
certification and compulsory education laws
 social workers – formed the National Federation of Settlements, business leaders
created the National Association of Manufacturers and the US Chamber of Commerce
 farmers – joined the National Farm Bureau Federation to spread information about
farming and to try to improve their lot
o Dr. Alice Hamilton – traced a local typhoid epidemic to flies carrying germs from open privies
 pioneered research into the causes of lead poisoning and other industrial disease
The Social-Justice Movement
o ministers, intellectuals, social workers, and lawyers – joined in a social-justice movement that
focused national attention on the need for tenement house laws, more stringent child labor
legislation, and better working conditions for women
 also pushed for more and better parks, playgrounds, day nurseries, schools, and
community services
 turned increasingly to government aid
o saw problems as endless and interrelated
 using Lawrence Veiller’s success in New York as a model, study after study continued to
analyze the condition of the poor
o pages of data on family budgets, women’s wages, and working conditions, child labor, and
other matters
 U.S. Commissioner of Labor – issued a massive nineteen-volume report
o social-justice reformers formed the National Conference of Charities and Corrections – or the
National Conference of Social Work – conference reflected the growing professionalization of
reform
 now founded complete professional schools at Chicago, Harvard, and other universities
 had their own professional magazine (the Survey)
 aimed at a comprehensive program of minimum wages, maximum hours, workers’
compensation, and widows’ pensions
The Purity Crusade
o social-justice reformers – struck by the degree to which alcohol affected the lives of the people
they were trying to help
 launched a crusade to remove the evils of drink from American life
o Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) – continued to grow after it was founded in the
1870s
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largest organization of women in American history
 joined by the Anti-Saloon League
 together the two groups pressed to abolish alcohol and the places where it was
consumed
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o 18 Amendment – prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors
– took effect in January 1920
 amendment would encounter problems – progressives thought Prohibition was a major
step toward eliminating social instability and moral wrong
o worked to get rid of prostitution, convinced that poverty and ignorance drove women to these
desperate measures
 Mann Act – prohibited the interstate transportation of women for immoral purposes
 campaign against prostitution reflected the desire to purify and elevate, through
the implementation of government action
Woman Suffrage, Women’s Rights
o women played a large role in the social justice movement
o college-educated women – took up careers in the professions
 some of them supported reform
o National Council of Jewish Women, the National Congress of Mothers, and the Women’s Trade
Union League – furthered the aims of the progressive movement
o African American women formed their own groups
 National Association of Colored Women – was created fifteen years before the better
known male-oriented National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP)
 women's organization was the first African American social-service agency in the
country
o women’s clubs established kindergartens, day nurseries, playgrounds, and retirement homes
o General Federation of Women’s Clubs – met for coffee and literary conversation, also began to
look closely at conditions around them
o Industrial Section and a Committee on Legislation for Women and Children – supported
reforms to safeguard child and women workers, improve schools, ensure pure food, and
beautify the community
o lent their support in 1914 to woman suffrage
 growing number of women activists became involved in the suffrage movement
o two major suffrage associations:
 National Woman Suffrage Association
 American Woman Suffrage Association
 merged in 1890 to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association
 brought unity and a tightly controlled national organization
o Carrie Chapman Catt and Anna Howard Shaw – believed in organization and peaceful lobbying
to win the vote
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o Alice Paul and Lucy Burns – founders of the Congressional Union, used more militant tactics –
interrupted public meetings, focused on Congress rather than the states, and in 1917 picketed
the White House
o began to stress a pragmatic argument: because women were more sensitive to moral issues tan
men, they would use their votes to help create a better society
 support temperance, clean government, laws to protect workers, and other reforms
o 1918 – the House stated that the right to vote shall not be denied “on account of sex”
 Senate and enough states followed
 after generations of suffragist efforts, the 19th Amendment took effect in 1920
o social-justice movement had the most success in passing state laws limiting the working hours
of women
 1913 – 39 states set maximum working hours for women or banned the employment of
women at night
o 28 states had laws regulating child labor
 courts often ruled against such laws
 parents would send their children to work with instructions to lie about their ages
o 1916 – President Woodrow Wilson supported a law to limit child labor, the Keating-Owen Act
 Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918) – the Supreme Court overturned it as an improper
regulation of local labor conditions
o 1919 – Congress tried again in the Second Child Labor Act
 Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Company (1922) – legislation was again struck down
 not until the 1930s would Congress succeed in passing a court-supported
national child labor law
A Ferment of Ideas: Challenging the Status Quo
o role of the environment in shaping human behavior
 rejected age-encrusted divine or “natural” laws in favor of thoughts and actions that
worked
 pragmatism emerged in this ferment of ideas
o William James – became the key figure in American thought from the 1880s to World War I
 people were not only shaped by their environment: they shaped it
 ideas that worked became truth
o John Dewey – applied pragmatism to educational reform
 argued that thought evolves in relation to the environment and that education is
directly related to experience
 introduced an educational revolution that stressed children’s needs and capabilities
 opposed memorization, rote learning, and dogmatic-authoritarian teaching
methods
 he emphasized personal growth, free inquiry, and creativity
o Judge Ben Lindsey – children were not born with a genetic tendency to crime; they were made
good or bad by the environment in which they grew
 worked for playgrounds, slum clearance, public baths, and technical schools
 was known as the “Kids’ Judge”
o socialism – a reformist political philosophy, made up of followers of Karl Marx
 urged workers to join a worldwide revolution to overthrow capitalism
 tried in secret to gain control of important labor unions
 this strategy also failed
o Daniel De Leon – led the Socialist Labor Party, but lacked mass support
o Eugene V. Debs – wanted a more moderate form of socialism, was president of the American
Railway Union and formed a rival organization, the Socialist Democratic party
 formed the important Socialist party of America
 was eloquent, passionate, and a visionary
 captivated audiences, attacking the injustices of capitalism and urging a workers’
republic
o enlisted some intellectuals, factory workers, disillusioned Populists, tenant farmers, miners, and
lumberjacks
 most Socialists who won promised progressive reform rather than threatening to
overthrow capitalists
Reform in the Cities and States
- progressive reformers realized government could be a crucial agent accomplishing their goals
o measures of political reform like the direct primary and the direct election of senators – made
government follow the public will
- use of federal power increased, as did the power and prestige of the presidency
o progressives believed in the ability of experts to solve problems
- Interest Groups and the Decline of Popular Politics
o fewer and fewer people were going to the polls
 voter turnout dropped dramatically
 turnout was lowest among young people, immigrants, the poor, and the newly
enfranchised women
o numerous causes for the lack of participation at the polls
 most important was that people had found another way to achieve some of the
objectives they had once assigned to political parties
 had found the “interest group”
o professional societies, trade associations, labor organizations, farm lobbies, and other interest
groups worked outside the party system to pressure government for things their members
wanted
- Reform in the Cities
o urban reform movement spread across the nation
o National Municipal League – became the forum for debate over civic reform, changes in the tax
laws, and municipal ownership of the public utilities
 nearly every city had a variety of clubs and organizations directed at improving the
quality of city life
 formed associations, adopted long-range policies, and hired a staff to achieve them
o reformers reordered municipal government
 broadened the scope of utility regulation and restricted city franchises
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updated tax assessments and tried to clean up the electoral machinery
developed a trained civil service to oversee planning and operations
 goal was efficiency and results
o turned to recent advances in business management and organization
 stressed continuity and expertise
o elected a leader and a corps of experts
 regulatory commissions and municipal departments
o used engineers to oversee utility and water systems, physicians and nurses to improve
municipal health, and city planners to oversee park and highway development
 “academies” to train police and firefighters
o commission form of government: a form of municipal government where commissions of
appointed experts, rather than elected officials, ran the city
 city manager
 city mayors played important roles (like Seth Low, Hazen S. Pingree, Samuel M. Jones,
Tom L. Johnson)
 informed the citizenry, held outdoor meetings in huge tents to inform the populace
 turned more and more to public ownership of gas, electricity, water, and transportation
Action in the States
o many problems lay beyond a city’s boundaries
 reformers wanted the state government to act
o worked to stiffen state laws regulating the labor of women and children, to create and
strengthen commissions to regulate railroads and utilities, to impose corporate and inheritance
taxes, to improve mental and penal institutions, and to allocate more funds for state
universities
 first workers’ compensation law
 factory inspection laws
 employers’ liability laws
o state established regulatory boards to oversee utilities and insurance
 outlawed corporate contributions to political campaigns and restricted business
lobbying in the state legislature
o regulatory commissions were empowered to examine corporate books and hold public hearings
 new power to initiate actions, rather than await complaints
 set maximum rates and prices
o pioneered regulatory methods later adopted in federal legislation
 commissions did not always act wisely or even in the public interest
o to progressives – commissions offered a way to end the corrupt alliance between business and
politics
o another way was to “democratize” government by reducing the power of politicians and
increasing the influence of the electorate (the people)
o progressives backed three measures to make officeholders more responsive to popular will:
 the initiative – allowed voters to propose and pass new laws outside the power of the
legislature or governor to interfere
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the referendum – gave voters a ballot box veto power over bad laws passed by their
state legislatures
 the recall – gave voters the power to remove an elected official from his office for any
cause before his term had ended
 17th Amendment – provided for the direct election of US senators
reform governors began to hold more importance – governors like Joseph Folk, Hiram Johnson,
Charles Evans Hughes, Woodrow Wilson
Robert M. LaFollette – most famous reform governor
 became interested in reform and then became governor of Wisconsin
 “Wisconsin Idea” – one of the most important reform programs in the history of state
government
 established an industrial commission to regulate factory safety and sanitation
 improved education, workers’ compensation, public utility controls, and resource
conservation
 lowered railroad rates and raised railroad taxes
Wisconsin – became the first state to adopt a direct primary for all political nominations
 first to adopt a state income tax
his supporters created the first Legislative Reference Bureau – stocked the governor and his
allies with facts and figures to support the measures they wanted
after 1905 – progressives looked more and more to Washington
 many concerns – corporations and conservation, factory safety, and child labor –
crossed state lines
 federal action was needed and wanted
o the focus of progressivism then shifted to Washington