CHAPTER 10:
REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT
Section 1: The Scientific Revolution
BACKGROUND:
During
Middle Ages many
educated Europeans started to take
an intense interest in the world
around them.
These “natural philosophers” did
not observe and experiment,
instead they relied on the ancient
authorities such as Aristotle for
their knowledge.
Changes occur
16th Centuries
 The
during the 15th and
mastery of Greek and Latin
language opened the door to use
other philosophers’ works such as
Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato.
 Technological issues lead to
stimulated scientific activity
(wanted to improve ships,
agriculture, medicine, etc.)
 The
invention of the printing press
allowed ideas so spread quickly
(much easier to print mass copies
than to handwrite them! Just think
about how fast ideas spread now!)
 Advances in math helped to
revolutionize science, 4 important
mathematicians were major players
in these advances
Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes
Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac
Newton
REVOLUTION IN ASTRONOMY

Ptolemy, 2nd Century A.D.
known as the greatest
astronomer in antiquity

Philosophers of the Middle
Ages used his ideas (along
with some from Aristotle
and Christianity) to
construct a model of the
universe called the Ptolemic
System.

Geocentric- spheres one inside
the other, Earth at the center
 Copernicus

Copernicus, May 1543
Published On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres.


and Kepler
Heliocentric model: sun
centered, planets revolve around
sun, moon around Earth. More
accurate
Kepler
Confirmed the heliocentric
model
 Laws of planetary motions
 1st law: orbits of the planets
not circular, elliptical (eggshaped) with the Sun toward
the end.

 Galileo
Galilei
 Math teacher
 1st European to make regular
observations of the heavens using a
telescope. He discovered:
mountains on the moon
4 moons of Jupiter
Sunspots
 Church ordered him to stop studies
because his discoveries were
threatening church power
Isaac
Newton
 Went
to Cambridge University,
became a professor of
Mathematics
 Wrote Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy or Principia
 3 Laws that govern the planetary
bodies as well as objects on Earth

Universal law of gravitation

Created a new picture of the universe
BREAKTHROUGHS IN MEDICINE & CHEMISTRY
Revolution
in medicine 16th Century
 Old
ideas dominated by the teachings of
Greek physician, Galen.
Relied on animal dissection (wrong in many
cases)

 New
ideas based on the work of Andreas
Vesalius

1542 wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body

Discussed what he found when dissecting human
bodies as a professor of surgery at University of
Padua
 William

Harvey
1628 wrote On the Motion of the Heart
and Blood
Heart not liver was the beginning point of
circulation of blood
 Same blood flows in both veins and arteries
 Most importantly showed that blood makes a
complete circuit as it passes through the body.

 Robert
Boyle
One of 1st scientists to conduct controlled
experiments
 Boyle’s Law: volume of a gas varies with
the pressure exerted on it.

WOMEN AND THE ORIGINS OF MODERN SCIENCE
 Margaret

Cavendish
Wrote works on scientific matters

Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy
 Critical of the idea that science could help humans
master nature
 Women
14% of German astronomers
1650- 1710

Most famous: Maria Winkelmann
Trained by self-taught astronomer
 Marries Prussia’s foremost astronomer and becomes
his assistant
 Discovered a comet
 Applied for position at Berlin Academy but was not
hired because she was a woman

DESCARTES AND REASON
 Descartes
began thinking and writing
about the doubt and uncertainty
everywhere in the confusion of the 17th
Century
 His philosophy dominated Western
thought until 20th Century

Most famous work Discourse on Method


Used reason to arrive at a second principle


“I think therefore, I am”
Mind and matter were completely separate
Called father of modern rationalism

System of thought that reason is the chief source of
knowledge
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing
evidence


Crucial to the evolution of science
Developed by Francis Bacon
English Philosopher
 Believed that scientists should use inductive
reasoning to learn about nature


Systematic observations and carefully organized
experiments to test hypotheses would lead to correct
general principles
Practical not academic: Wanted science to benefit
industry, agriculture, and trade
 He thought science could “conquer nature in action”
control and domination of nature became an
important concern of science and technology

CHAPTER 10:
REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT
Section 2: The Enlightenment
PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT
The
Enlightenment was an 18th
Century philosophical movement of
intellectuals who were impressed
with the achievements of the
Scientific Revolution.
Favored reason- using the scientific
method to understand all life.
Wanted to progress toward a better
society
 Influenced
by two 17th century Englishmen
 Isaac
Newton, believed that the
physical world and everything in it
worked like a giant machine

Intellectuals believed that if Newton could discover
the natural laws that governed the physical world
then they could discover the natural laws that
governed human society.
 John
Locke, argued that everyone
was born with a tabula rasa, or blank
mind.

People were molded by the experiences that came
through their senses. If environments were changed
and people were exposed to the right influences, then
people could be changed and a new society created.
PHILOSOPHES AND THEIR IDEAS
 The
intellectuals of the Enlightenment were
called philosophe (French: means
philosopher.)
 writers, professors, journalists,
economists, and above all social reformers.
 Came from the nobility and middle class.
 Inspiration for the Enlightenment came
from the English, but most of the leaders of
the Enlightenment were French.
 The ideas became a international movement
as their ideas spread.
The
role of philosophy was to
change the world
Rational criticism was to be
applied to everything, including
religion.
Philosophes often disagreed and
the Enlightenment evolved
 Each succeeding generation
became more radical than the
last
Montesquieu
 French
nobility
 The Spirit of the Laws, 1748
 Studied government trying
to use the scientific method
to find the natural laws
that govern social and
political relationships of
human beings
Montesquieu
identified 3
basic kinds of governments:
1. Republics
(small states)
2. Despotism (large states)
(**Tyranny, dictatorship)
3. Monarchies (moderate sized
states)


1.
2.
3.
Used England as an example of a
monarchy
Believed E’s gov’t had 3 branches
The executive (the monarch)
The legislative (parliament)
Judicial (courts of law)
The government functioned through a
separation of powers
Checks and balances
Provides freedom and security for the
state

 American
philosophes worked these
ideas into the U.S. Constitution!
Voltaire
 Greatest
figure of the
Enlightenment
 Parisian, from prosperous middle-class
family
 Wrote pamphlets, novels, plays, letters,
essays, and histories that brought him
fame and wealth
 Known for criticism of Christianity and
his strong belief in religious toleration

Treatise on Toleration
Deism-
18th century
religious philosophy based
on reason and natural law.
 Built
on idea of Newtonian
world-machine
 Believed God was a mechanic or
clockmaker that made the world
and then let it run itself
according to natural laws
 Diderot
Went to University of Paris
 Freelance writer


father wanted him to be a lawyer or work in the
church
Encyclopedia, 28 volume collection of knowledge
he edited
 Wanted to change the general way of thinking
 Attacked religious superstition and promoted
tolerance
 Sold to doctors, clergymen, teachers, and
lawyers thus spreading the ideas of the
Enlightenment

TOWARD A NEW SOCIAL SCIENCE
Enlightenment ideas led to the creation of what we call
social sciences: economics and political science
 Economics

Physiocrats and Adam Smith
French group wanted to identify natural economic
laws that governed society
 Believed that if individuals were free to pursue their
own economic self-interest, all society would benefit
 The state should not interrupt the free play of
natural economic forces by imposing gov’t
restrictions on the economy
 This becomes known as laissez-faire
 “to let (the people) do (what they want)”

 Beccaria
and Justice
Most European states had court
systems and punishments (often
cruel)
 Needed to deter crime
 Beccaria wrote On Crimes and
Punishments

Argued that punishments should not be
brutal
 Opposed capital punishment (death
penalty)
 He thought this just set a barbaric
example

THE LATER ENLIGHTENMENT
 1760’s new generation
 Most famous Jean-Jacques Rousseau



Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind
People had adopted laws and gov’ts to preserve
their private property. In the process, they had
become enslaved by government.
Most famous work: The Social Contract
Society agrees to be governed by its general will.
 Emile- novel about education
 Should foster and not restrict children’s natural instincts
 Thought emotions along with reason were important to
human development
 Balance between mind and heart

RIGHTS OF WOMEN
 Male
intellectuals had argued that the
nature of women made them inferior to men
and made male domination necessary
 Mary Wollstonecraft, English writers
 Turned Enlightenment ideas against male
philosophers
 If monarchs leading based solely on birth
right is wrong so is the domination of
women by men.
 Women had reason and so they should be
equal
SOCIAL WORLD OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Enlightenment included the
middle class but the peasants were
mostly unaware and little affected by
the Enlightenment
 The Growth of Reading
More publishing and reading lead to a
faster way to spread ideas
 Development of magazines
 Daily newspapers

 The





Salon
Elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper
class’s great urban houses
Guests gathered in salons and took part in
conversations that were often centered on the
new ideas of the philosophes
Brought writers and artists together with
aristocrats, gov’t officials, and wealthy
middle class people
Women who hosted had the opportunity to
sway political opinion and influence literary
and artistic taste
Helped to spread the Enlightenment ideas
RELIGION IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT
 Many philosophes attacked Christianity

But…. Most Europeans were still Christian
 Catholic
church still remained an important
center of life for community
 Protestantism had settled into normal
patterns
 New desire of Protestants for greater depths of
religious experience led to religious
movements

England-Methodism-John Wesley
mystical experience
 Preached in open fields
 Methodist church begins

CHAPTER 10:
REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT
Section3: The Impact of the Enlightenment
THE ARTS
 Architecture

and art
The Palace of Louis XIV at Versailles
had a great impact on Europe
Other
rulers built
grandiose residence
New
palaces were
modeled more on the
Italian baroque style of
the 1500s and 1600s
than on Versailles

Balthasar Neumann, architect

Church of the Fourteen Saints in Germany and
Residence (palace of prince-bishop of Wurzburg)
1730s
a new artistic style
 known
as rococo
Emphasized grace, charm and
gentle action
Delicate designs colored in gold
with graceful curves
Highly secular, lightness and
charm spoke of the pursuit of
pleasure, happiness, and love.


Antoine Watteau, painter

Paintings of elegant world of upper-class pleasure
and joy. Underneath there is an element of sadness
suggesting the fragility and passing nature of
pleasure, love, and life.
Music
The 18th century was one of the greatest
periods in the history of European music

 Johann
Sebastian Bach
Renowned organist from Germany
Mass in B Minor
One of greatest composers of all time

 George
Fredrick Handel
From Germany, but spent a lot of time in
England
Best known for religious music, Messiah

 Bach
and Handel perfected the baroque musical
style
 Then in the late 18th century two new geniuses
show up, their music is called classical not baroque
 Franz Joseph Haydn
 Played for Hungarian princes until coming to
England and playing for public concerts
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 A child prodigy
 Couldn’t get a patron to support him financially
but still wrote music
 The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and
Don Giovanni were most famous works
Literature
 Development
of the novel- appealed to
middle class readers
 Henry Fielding wrote about people
without morals who survive by their
wits

The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling
Adventures of a young scoundrel,
hilarious, about life in the slums to
aristocracy. Accurately reflects real types
of this period
ENLIGHTENMENT AND ABSOLUTISM
 Enlightenment
thought had an effect on the
political life of European states in the 18th C
 The philosophes believed in natural rights
for all people

These rights included
Equality before the law
 Freedom of religious worship
 Freedom of speech
 Freedom of the press
 Right to assemble
 Right to hold property
 Right to pursue happiness

Declaration of
Independence
 Philosophes
believed that people needed to
be governed by enlightened rulers
Allow religious toleration, freedom of speech
and press, rights of private property
 Nurture the arts, sciences, and education
 Obey the laws and enforce them fairly for all
subjects
 Historians believe that these ideas created a
new kind of monarch and lead to enlightened
absolutism


Governed by Enlightenment principles but
maintained power
 Prussia:
Army and Bureaucracy
Prussian kings, Fredrick William I and Fredrick II made
Prussia a major European power in the 18th C

Fredrick William I
Strove to maintain a highly efficient bureaucracy
of civil service workers. Values were obedience,
honor, and service to the king.
 Army
 by the end of his reign he had doubled the
army’s size
 One of the best in Europe
 Members of nobility were officers
 Believed in duty, obedience, and sacrifice

 Fredrick







II, or Fredrick the Great
One of the best educated and most cultured
monarch in the 18th C. even invited Voltaire to live
at his court
Dedicated ruler
Enlarged the Prussian army and kept strict watch
over bureaucracy
Abolished the use of torture (except for treason or
murder)
Granted limited freedom of speech and press
Greater religious toleration
However, kept serfdom and rigid social structure
The
Austrian Empire
 Was
one of the great European
states by the beginning of the
18th C
 Difficult to rule
Sprawling (BIG)
Many different nationalities,
languages, religions, and cultures


Maria Teresa, 1740
Worked to centralize the Empire and strengthen the
state’s power
 Not open to philosophes’ calls for reform, but worked
hard to alleviate the conditions of the serfs


Joseph II, Maria’s son
Reform program- abolished death penalty and
serfdom, established equality of all before the law
and religious toleration
 Largely failed… alienated nobles and church with
reforms and serfs weren’t happy because the drastic
changes were confusing
 Successors undid most reforms

 Russia
under Catherine the Great
After a string of weak leaders who were
deposed or murdered Catherine II took the
throne
 1762-1796
 Favored Enlightenment reforms and invited
Diderot to Russia
 But… she didn’t change much because she
knew she needed the nobles’ support
 Favoring nobility led to worse conditions for
peasants and led to rebellion
 Rural reform was halted and serfdom
expanded
 Defeated Turks and gained territory in Poland

Enlightened
Absolutism?
Of the 3 rulers discussed only Joseph II made
truly radical changes based on Enlightenment
ideas.
 Fredrick II and Catherine II talked about
reforms but did very little
 Heightened state power in Prussia, Austria,
and Russia was not used to undertake
enlightened reforms. Rather, it was used to
collect more taxes and create armies, wage
wars, and gain power.
 Philosophes thought war was a waste of life
and resources

WAR OF AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
1740,
war broke out in
connection with the succession
to throne
Charles VI died then Maria
Theresa ruled, Fredrick II took
advantage and invaded Silesia
and France allied with Prussia
(Fredrick) so Maria allied with
Great Britain
 The
War of Austrian Succession was
fought in 3 areas of the world

Europe
Prussia seized Silesia
 France occupied Netherlands



France took Madras in India
North America

British captured French fortress Louisbourg
 After


7 years everyone was tired
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748
Return of all occupied territories except Silesia
to original owners
THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR
Maria Theresa couldn’t accept loss of Silesia, rebuilt army
and worked to separate from Prussia as ally
 New


Britain and France over colonies
Austria and Prussia over Silesia
 New


rivalries
Allies
French and Austria, Russia joins in because
they feel that Prussia has become a threat
Britain allies with Prussia
 Another
worldwide war with 3 areas of
conflict

Europe, India, and North America
The
War in Europe
 British
and Prussians against
Austrians, Russians and French
 Prussia- superb army and military
skill
 Peter III of Russia pulls his troops
from conflict creating a stalemate
 European war ends 1763
Territories returned and Austria
officially recognized Prussia's
permanent control of Silesia

The
War in India
 Britain
and France
 Great War for Empire
 Britain wins out not because
they are better but because
they were more persistent
 Treaty of Paris 1763
 French withdrew from India
The
War in North America
Greatest conflicts of the Seven Years’ War
took place in N.A.
 French
and British Colonies were
set up differently
 French- Canada and Louisiana
Run as a vast trading area
Fur, leather, fish and timber
Thinly populated

 English
13 colonies
More populated

Fought over 2 primary areas
Waterways of the gulf of St. Lawrence
 Unsettled Ohio River Valley

 French
moving down from Canada and up
from Louisiana to set up forts in Ohio
River Valley, this would cut off British
expansion
 French gained support from Native
Americans
 French victories in the beginning
 William Pitt the Elder becomes Britain’s
Prime Minister and refocuses on colonies
 French had more troops but Britain had a
strong navy, cut off French reinforcements
 British win 1759 under General Wolfe
 British seize Montreal, Great Lakes area,
and Ohio River Valley
Treaty
of Paris
 Transferred
Canada and the
lands east of MS to England
 Spain transferred Florida to
British
 Louisiana territory to Spanish
 By 1763 Great Britain is worlds’
greatest colonial power
(***Doesn’t last long…***)
CHAPTER 10:
REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT
Section 4: Colonial Empires and the
American Revolution
COLONIAL EMPIRES IN LATIN AMERICA
A. After the Spanish and Portuguese
colonized the Americas, a new civilization
arose that we call Latin America.
Colonies often developed differently from
the parent country.
B. Latin America was a multiracial society. Europeans
and Native Americans intermarried; their offspring were
known as mestizos.
Close to 8 million African slaves were brought to these
countries. Mulattoes—offspring of Europeans and
Africans—were also part of the unique society of Latin
America.
C. The Portuguese and Spanish sought ways to
profit from their colonies. One source of wealth was
gold and silver, but farming was more lucrative in
the long run. An important feature of Latin
American agriculture was the dominant role of the
large landowner. The system of large landowners
and dependent peasants has remained a lasting
part of Latin America.
THIS SYSTEM COULD NOT SURVIVE WITHOUT
SLAVES. SLAVE LABOR WAS USED EXTENSIVELY IN
THE LATIN AMERICAN COLONIES FOR MINING AND
AGRICULTURE.
A much higher
percentage of slaves
coming from Africa
were taken to the
Caribbean, Central
America, and South
America than British
North America.
Most commonly
worked in SUGAR
plantations and
silver mines.
D. Trade between the parent country and colony
also was profitable. Spain and Portugal both
regulated their colonies to keep others out.
By the beginning of the 18th century, both France
and Britain were getting too powerful to be kept
out of the lucrative Latin American markets.
E. The colonies of Portuguese Brazil and
Spanish Latin America lasted over three hundred
years. Colonial Latin America had much freedom
in carrying out their imperial policies.
F. The European rulers were determined
to spread Christianity. Catholic
missionaries spread throughout the
colonies.
 They
brought the Native Americans into
missions, where the natives could be converted,
taught trades, and encouraged to farm. Missions
allowed the missionaries to control the lives of
the Native Americans.
 G.
The Catholic
Church built schools in
the colonies, where
Native American
students were taught
the basics of reading
and writing and
arithmetic. Women
could enter convents
to become nuns.
H. Many nuns
worked outside
their convents by
running schools
and hospitals. One
of these nuns, Sor
Juana Inés de la
Cruz, urged that
women be
educated.
 I.
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz was a
well-known Latin American literary
figure. She converted and entered
the convent so she could write poetry
and plays. She had been rejected
from the University of Mexico
because she was a woman. She died
at the age of 43 while nursing the
sick during an epidemic in Mexico
City.
BRITAIN AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA
A. The United Kingdom of Great Britain came
into being in 1707, when the governments of
England and Scotland united. The term British
came to refer to the English and the Scots.
 B.
The monarch and Parliament shared power
in eighteenth-century Britain. Parliament was
gradually getting the upper hand. It had the
power to make laws, levy taxes, and pass the
budget.
C. A new dynasty, the
Hanoverians, took
power in 1714. From
the first Hanoverian
king, George I, their
chief ministers were
allowed to handle
Parliament and so were
powerful. Robert
Walpole was prime
minister from 1721 to
1742. The middles class
wanted Britain’s trade
and empire expanded.
D. One place for expansion was North America,
where Britain controlled Canada and 13 colonies on
the eastern coast of the present United States.
Merchants in the colonial ports of Boston,
Philadelphia, New York, and Charleston did not
want the British government to run their affairs.
Colonies had their own legislatures and often acted
independently.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
A. After the Seven Years’ War, Britain needed more
revenue from the colonies. In 1765 Parliament imposed
the Stamp Act. Printed material such as legal documents
and newspapers had to carry a stamp showing that a tax
had been paid to Britain. After strong opposition, the act
was repealed in 1766.

B. The American colonies and Great Britain had
numerous crises throughout the 1770s. The First
Continental Congress convened in 1774. Fighting
between Britain and the colonists erupted at
Lexington and Concord in 1775. In 1776, the signing
of Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence formally
declared the colonies’ intent to be independent.
C. The help of foreign countries was essential to
the colonies’ cause. France supplied arms and
men, and formally recognized the American
state in 1777. It supplied troops and arms, and
the Spanish and Dutch joined in against Great
Britain.
 The
volunteer American forces finally beat the
well-trained professional British army after
defeating Cornwallis at Yorktown (1781). The
Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized the
independence of the American colonies and gave
the Americans control of the western territory
from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River.
THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION
A. The 13 former colonies were now states, having created
a new social contract. They had little interest in forming a
country with a strong central government. Each kept to its
own affairs, as the weak Articles of Confederation
showed. Soon it was clear the government under the
Articles lacked the power to deal with the new nation’s
problems.
B. In 1787 delegates met to revise the
Articles. That meeting became the
Constitutional Convention. The delegates
wrote a plan for a new national
government.
 C.
The proposed Constitution created a federal
system. Power is shared between the national
and state governments. The national (federal)
government had the power to levy taxes, raise
an army, regulate trade, and create a national
currency.
D. The federal government was divided into three branches
in a system of checks and balances. The president
(executive) had the power to execute laws, veto the
legislature’s acts, supervise foreign affairs, and direct
military forces.
E. The second branch (the legislative) consisted of the
Senate, elected by the state legislatures, and the House of
Representatives, elected directly by the people. The
Supreme Court and other courts made up the third branch
(judicial). The courts were to enforce the Constitution as
the “supreme law of the land.”
F. The promise of a Bill of Rights helped get the
Constitution adopted. These 10 amendments
guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, press,
petition, and assembly. They gave Americans the
right to bear arms and to be protected from
unreasonable search and seizures. They
guaranteed a trial by jury, due process of law, and
the protection of property rights.
G. Many of these rights were derived from the
natural rights proposed by the 18th century
philosophes.