The Call of the Wild:
Work as a Calling and the Captivity
of Zookeepers
J. Stuart Bunderson
Washington University in St. Louis
Jeffrey R. Thompson
Brigham Young University
A Little Background: Ideology in the
Employment Contract
“[People] will work hard for money; they will
work harder for other [people]. But
[people] will work hardest of all when they
are dedicated to a cause.”
- Harry Emerson Fosdick
(author, teacher, religious leader)
A Little Background: Ideology in the
Employment Contract
Economic
Incentives
(pay, benefits)
“[People] will work hard for money; they will
work harder for other [people]. But
[people] will work hardest of all when they
are dedicated to a cause.”
- Harry Emerson Fosdick
(author, teacher, religious leader)
A Little Background: Ideology in the
Employment Contract
Economic
Incentives
(pay, benefits)
“[People] will work hard for money; they will
work harder for other [people]. But
[people] will work hardest of all when they
are dedicated to a cause.”
Socio-Emotional
Incentives
- Harry Emerson Fosdick
(esteem, recognition,
status, friendship)
(author, teacher, religious leader)
A Little Background: Ideology in the
Employment Contract
Economic
Incentives
(pay, benefits)
“[People] will work hard for money; they will
work harder for other [people]. But
[people] will work hardest of all when they
are dedicated to a cause.”
Socio-Emotional
Incentives
- Harry Emerson Fosdick
(esteem, recognition,
Ideological
Incentives
(conviction, purpose,
mission, values)
status, friendship)
(author, teacher, religious leader)
Developing this Basic Premise

Thompson & Bunderson (2003, AMR)
Explores ideology as a “third currency” in the
psychological contract
 Considers the implications of ideological currency
for the experience of breach/violation.


We then set out to find a sample where we could
test these hunches, where ideological incentives
(and not others) were paramount …
So We Went to the Zoo

Zookeeping lacks strong economic incentives:


Average income is under $25,000 per year
About 63% rely on another source of income (e.g., second
job, family)
So We Went to the Zoo

Zookeeping lacks key socio-emotional incentives (e.g.,
status, opportunities for advancement, etc.):


You don’t really “move up” as a zookeeper
Kookeeping is “dirty work” (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999)


“[A] nun came by with a school group and the nun said, ‘See the kind
of job that you get when you don't finish your education!’ This was
within ear shot …”
Note: About 73% of
zookeepers have a
BS or higher!
And Yet, Zookeepers Are
Highly Committed


Most zoos have more keeper applicants than
they can hire & turnover is low
Many keepers volunteer for months or years
before getting hired.
• “There's not much that they could do to
get me to quit.”
• “I can't think what would cause me to
leave.”
• “I don't think there's anything that they
could do to me that would make me leave.”
“You know, Ned,
you’re my best
friend, and I just
gotta tell someone.
It’s time I come out
of this closet and
stop living this lie…
I hate animals.”
Interviews


We started by conducting in-depth interviews
with 23 keepers at a leading public zoo in the
Midwest.
Questions focused on:
Why zookeeping and how they got there
 Thoughts and feelings about their work & the zoo
 Interactions with others at the zoo


Interviews were tape recorded, transcribed, and
coded using an emergent coding scheme.
Work as Calling Emerged as Key

Comments suggesting a view of work as a calling
emerged as the most frequent theme (21 of 23
interviews).





“I knew this is what I was meant to do”
“It's kind of like my calling I think”
“It's a calling for me”
“I've found my little niche”
It became clear that we needed to understand the
concept of calling and how it was informing the way
these keepers thought about their work.
Classical Conceptions of
Work as a Calling


In Greek and Medieval thinking, work was a necessary
evil which kept humankind from the more noble
pursuits of the mind (philosophy) or spirit (religion).
Protestant Reformation (Luther & Calvin)



Work is a vocation, a station in life through which one serves
God and humankind
One is obligated to faithfully execute duties within that
vocation (cobbler & monk are both called)
“As there is a distinction of several creatures, so among
men there are several inclinations and several abilities,
as donations from God, for the common advantage of
human society” (Puritan Theologian Stephan Charnock, 1680).
Contemporary Conceptions of
Work as a Calling

Weber argued that a secular version of the calling
notion became “bound to the technical and economic
conditions of machine production” and “provided an
ethical justification of the modern specialized division
of labour” (Weber, 1930).

Modern view of calling: work is an application of one’s
particular talents for the greater good

Bellah, et al. (1985: 66): “A calling links a person to the larger
community, a whole in which the calling of each is a
contribution to the good of all”
Contemporary Conceptions of
Work as a Calling


Weber argued that a secular version of the calling
notion became “bound to the technical and economic
conditions of machine production” and “provided an
How
were
ethical justification of the modern specialized division
callings
experienced by
of labour” (Weber,
1930).
these keepers and how
Modern view of did
calling:
work is
an application of one’s
callings
matter?
particular talents for the greater good

Bellah, et al. (1985: 66): “A calling links a person to the larger
community, a whole in which the calling of each is a
contribution to the good of all”
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
“Some People Are Just Wired this Way”



“It's a part of who I am and I don't know if I can
explain that. When you use that expression ‘it's in your
blood’, like football coaches and players can never retire
because it's in their blood. Whatever my genetic
makeup is I'm geared towards animals.”
“[Zookeepers] relate better to animals than they do to
people. But then sometimes I think you're just born an
animal person.”
“It's funny … some people you can tell they could care
less. They just aren't animal people.”
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
“I’ve Always Been Wired This Way”




“It's a calling for me just because my whole life I've just
been interested in animals. So looking back I should
have known at some time I would be working with
animals …”
“I was always interested in animals ever since I was a
kid. I drove my mom nuts catching bugs, and worms,
and frogs, and salamanders, bringing home anything I
could find … butterflies, stuff like that.”
“I always did like animals and was known in the
neighborhood as the guy who always had animals.”
“I’ve always loved animals” (7 interviews), “I’ve always
wanted to work with animals” (7 interviews)
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
“This is How I Make the World Better”

“My little way of preserving what we have left is taking
care of these animals. I'm not one of those people to
go out in the jungle and tell people don't do this, this is
bad, that's not me. … This is my life.”

“Most people think, ‘oh you should just turn these
animals loose in the wild’...Well, hey, there is no wild for
a lot of these animals – none whatsoever. The habitat is
gone. … [We’ve] got to do something and if captive
breeding is the one thing I can do to stop extinction
then I'm fine with that.”
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
Underlying Assumptions
“I am hard-wired in a particular way (e.g., passions,
endowments) which predisposes me for a particular
occupational niche”
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
Underlying Assumptions
“I am hard-wired in a particular way (e.g., passions,
endowments) which predisposes me for a particular
occupational niche”

Implication #1: A calling is enacted against the
backdrop of the societal division of labor – it
locates the individual within society and links the
person to some societal purpose.
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
Underlying Assumptions
“I am hard-wired in a particular way (e.g., passions,
endowments) which predisposes me for a particular
occupational niche”

Implication #2: Individuals have a duty to find that
place and to serve the greater good within that place.


“[A]mong the most incontestable of moral rules is that which
… orders us to specialize” since specialization “is essential to
social cohesion” (Jones, 1986; interpreting Durkheim, 1893).
Calvin (1574): “For as God bestows any ability or gift upon
any of us, he binds us to such as have need of us and as we
are able to help”.
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
“This Was Meant to Be”





“I was here two days and I knew this is what I was meant to do.
There's people that have volunteered here for years and they
don't get a job and I worked here a month and a half. So it's
kind of like my calling I think.”
“I’ve always read a lot about all different kinds of things and it
kind of led me here. It was magical in a way …”
“So things kind of worked out the way they should. … I kind
of fell into this. Things just worked out real well.”
“I just fell into the right places. … I mean that part time job I
got when I first came here I had nothing to do with it.”
“Three months before I graduated I was offered a full time job
in [my] department. I understand that's the only time that
department has ever been offered in that way.”
The Experience of Calling at the Zoo:
Underlying Assumptions
“The winds of fate (destiny, divine intervention)
conspired to lead me to this particular occupation”


Implication #1: Callings are largely outside the realm of
individual agency (given personal wiring, winds of fate).
Implication #2: To do anything but faithfully embrace
one’s calling is to be untrue to both yourself and
society.

If my personal wiring, the winds of fate, and the
requirements of society have led me here, who am I to
oppose it?!
The Experience of Work as a Calling

To feel called is to feel that one is “meant” to work in a
particular occupational niche because of passions,
endowments, and/or life history


This is different from related concepts like occupational
identification.




Involves a sense of personal and moral imperative
Duty (push) vs. affinity (pull)
Need for personal meaning vs. need for esteem/belonging
Moral beings vs. social beings
What consequences does this have for work-related
attitudes and behaviors?
A Calling & Work Outcomes: Toward a
Research Model
Work as a
Moral Duty
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Work
Rigidity
Job
Satisfaction
A Calling and
Work as a Moral Duty
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
Work as
Calling
“These animals have basically given up their
freedom [in order] to educate people… So we have
the responsibility to provide the best care for them.
So that kind of is my motivation.”
“I know when I'm there I do the best job I can to
take care of [my animals] and I can't necessarily say
the same for somebody else.”
A Calling and
Work Sacrifices
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
• Non-work time (H4)
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
“I also owe something more for the animal's sake:
To be willing to come in here in the middle of the
night if something is going on and be willing to
skip a break or two and be willing to not call in sick
as much as somebody might at some other job.”
“We don't get paid very well here… But I guess
that's the pay off for doing what you love.”
A Calling and
Work Flexibility
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
“One of the most rewarding things for me [is] the fact that I can
touch the animals and interact with them on a daily basis and I can
Non-work
time (H4)
see what I'm doing is how it makes a difference
to them• in
their
Work
• Effort (H5)
lives… It's the most important thing. I don't
think
I
could
be happy
Sacrifices • Money
(H6)
pushing
papers
in
an
administrative
position.”
Work as
Calling
• Occupational (H7)
Work
• Job (H8)
Rigidity • Work compromises (H9)
A Calling and
Meaningful, Satisfying Work
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Work
Rigidity
Meaningful
Work
Job
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)
• Job (H8)
• Work compromises (H9)
H11
Testing these Hypotheses



Joined forces with the American Association of Zoo Keepers
(AAZK)
Conducted a pilot study with 200 AAZK members to
validate our survey (105 responded, 52.5%)
Sampled all remaining AAZK members and solicited
participation from directors of American Zoological
Association (AZA)-accredited zoos.


Overall director response = 70 zoos (45.2% participation)
Overall keeper response = 1201 keepers (41.6%)
Testing these Hypotheses

Sample characteristics (n = 1201)
72% female
 92% caucasian
 10.8 yrs. in the profession, 7.4 yrs. at current zoo
 72.1% had bachelor’s degree or higher
 33.1% union members
 Represent 230 different zoos

Some Measures
Work as a Calling (6 items):
“I was meant to work with animals”Work as a • My duty (H1)
• Moral superiority (H2)
“Working with animals feels like my
calling
in life”
Moral
Duty
• Org’s duty (H3)
“It sometimes feels like I was destined to work with animals”
“I am definitely an animal person”
• Non-work time (H4)
“My passion for animals goes back toWork
my childhood”
• Effort (H5)
“Working with animals feels like mySacrifices
niche in life”
• Money (H6)
*
Cronbach’s
Alpha
=
.92
Work as
Calling
• Occupational (H7)
Work
• Job (H8)
Rigidity
• Work compromises (H9)
Meaningful
Work
Job
Satisfaction
H11
Some Measures
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
Moral Obligation (4 items):
“I have a moral obligation to give my animals the best possible• Non-work
care”
time (H4)
Work
“I consider it my sacred duty to do all I can for my animals” • Effort (H5)
Sacrifices • Money (H6)
* Cronbach’s alpha = .88 (ind), .88 (org.)
Work as
Note: This was adapted for the organization as the target.
Calling
• Occupational (H7)
Moral Superiority (4 items):
Work
• Job (H8)
“I get frustrated sometimes because some keepers
act like this is just a job”
Rigidity
• Work compromises (H9)
“Some other keepers here aren’t as committed to their animals as they should be”
* Cronbach’s alpha = .80
H11
Meaningful
Job
Work
Satisfaction
Some Measures
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
Work
Sacrifices
WorkNon-Work
as
Time: self-ratings
Calling
Effort: Director ratings
Work
Money:
1. How much of your prize (if you win) Rigidity
will you donate to an animal cause?
2. Self-reported income
Meaningful
Job
Work
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)
• Job (H8)
• Work compromises (H9)
H11
Some Measures
Work as a
Moral Duty
Occupational: Thoughts of quitting occupation
Job: Willingness to switch to non-keeper job
Work Compromises (3 items):
Work
- “Species preservation goals justify moving Sacrifices
animals
Work
as between facilities even if they suffer
hardship”
Calling
Work
Rigidity
Meaningful
Work
Job
Satisfaction
• My duty (H1)
• Moral superiority (H2)
• Org’s duty (H3)
• Non-work time (H4)
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)
• Job (H8)
• Work compromises (H9)
H11
Control Variables
• My duty (H1)
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Age
Gender
Yrs. experience
Education
Union member
Association member
Supervisor
Job orientation
Career orientation
Occupational identification
Work
Rigidity
Meaningful
Work
Job
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)
• Job (H8)
• Work compromises (H9)
H11
Results
• My duty (H1)*
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)*
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)*
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Age
Gender
Yrs. experience
Education
Union member
Association member
Supervisor
Job orientation
Career orientation
Occupational identification
Work
Rigidity
Meaningful
Work
Job
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)*
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)*
• Occupational (H7)*
• Job (H8)*
• Work compromise(H9)*
H11*
Results
• My duty (H1)*
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)*
Occupational
Identification
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Age
Gender
Yrs. experience
Education
Union member
Association member
Supervisor
Job orientation
Career orientation
Occupational identification
Work
Rigidity
Meaningful
Work
Job
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)*
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)*
• Job (H8)
• Work compromise(H9)
H11
Results
• My duty (H1)*
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)*
Occupational
Identification
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Age
Gender
Yrs. experience
Education
Union member
Association member
Supervisor
Job orientation
Career orientation
Occupational identification
Work
Rigidity
Affective
Commitment
Job
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)*
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)*
• Job (H8)
• Work compromise(H9)
Results
• My duty (H1)*
Work as a • Moral superiority (H2)
Moral Duty • Org’s duty (H3)*
Occupational
Identification
Work
Sacrifices
Work as
Calling
Age
Gender
Yrs. experience
Education
Union member
Association member
Supervisor
Job orientation
Career orientation
Occupational identification
Work
Rigidity
Affective
Commitment
Job
Satisfaction
• Non-work time (H4)*
• Effort (H5)
• Money (H6)
• Occupational (H7)*
• Job (H8)
• Work compromise(H9)
Some Conclusions

A calling links the individual to society in a
profoundly meaningful way.
Passions & endowments  Occupational niche
 I was “meant” to do this sort of work


A calling is binding as well as ennobling

This is my duty (to self and society)
The Costs of Calling for the
Individual

Work-life balance
“Working here at the zoo has cost me a marriage.”
 “Most of the zoo's employees are very dedicated.
Most of them put their charges or animals or plants
right up there with their family.”
 “I have back problems, arthritis, knee problems. So I
give up a lot to work here.”

The Costs of Calling for the
Individual

Exploitation

Those with a calling earned less
“I love the zoo. I would not tell [management] that
because they can get a strong hold on you that way. If
management knows you love your job, they'll try to do
things to undercut your pay and stuff like that.”
 “Even if I wasn't getting paid I would still be here.”


“How many people in the world get to work with
gorillas?… There are other people that would give
their eye teeth to be headkeeper of the primate
center at the ____ Zoo.”
The Costs of Callings for the
Employing Organization

Heightened vigilance
A calling puts the employee-organization
relationship on moral grounds (we share a moral
duty) and therefore opens the door for feelings of
moral violation (Thompson & Bunderson, 2003).
 Callings promote a “stewardship orientation” (Davis,

Schoorman, & Donaldson, 1997).
The Power of Knowing
“Why You’re Here”
“I understand why I'm here and, quite frankly, you
give up a lot to be in the animal field. I'm not
going to be rich. I'm not going to get a major
award and I'm not going to be on parade
someplace. So I know why I'm here.”