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JULIUS CAESAR
ACT 1
Scene i: The opening scene of the play is meant to establish the differences of opinion among the
Roman citizens and the commoners regarding Julius Caesar. Caesar, who is extraordinarily popular
among the common people, excites Rome when he defeats Pompey, who formerly possessed popularity
among the Roman masses, in battle. However, not everyone is thrilled at Caesar's victory, as Flavius and
Marcellus, among the elite of Rome, chastise the people for their celebration and proceed to tear down
celebratory decorations, an act which will result in their arrest. The anger and mistrust of Caesar
demonstrated by Flavius and Marcellus in this scene reflect the sentiments of the conspirators, who are
disturbed by Caesar's rise to power and willing to risk punishment to stem it.
Scene ii: The action of the play begins in this scene. The first section of the scene begins with Caesar
ordering Marc Antony to touch Calphurnia during the chariot race in an effort to cure their marriage of
barrenness. Caesar's lack of a son is important because he wishes to become king and needs an heir.
Octavius, Caesar's nephew, will also eventually become Caesar because of this, which is why he is
involved in the triumverate. After this order, the soothsayer comes to warn Caesar to "beware the ides
of March," or March 15. This is the first of several signs or omens that occur during the play, which
brings about one of the play's central themes—fate and free will. In this case, Caesar dismisses the
soothsayer as a "dreamer" and does not question him further about his warning, ignoring the sign being
given to him. Caesar will ignore several other omens before his death in Act III due to his own ego, which
also surfaces in this first section when he refers to himself in royal terms: "I hear a tongue shriller than
all the music/Cry 'Caesar.' Speak. Caesar is turned to hear" (ll. 19-20). Although Caesar has a great deal
of power, he is not a king, and his reference to himself as Caesar belies his great belief in his own power,
for he is, as he puts it, "always Caesar."
In the second section of the scene, Cassius attempts to discern Brutus' position on Caesar as king. This
introduces the conspiracy element to the play, as well as Brutus' love for both his friend Caesar and for
his country. Unlike most of Rome, Brutus is not celebrating Caesar's victory because he knows that
Caesar is almost certain to become king. Although Caesar is already Emperor, it is an appointed military
position, and the Roman Senate is the body that holds the true power in Rome. By making Caesar king,
Caesar would have absolute power for the rest of his life and then pass down that power to his heir, and
the Senate would be at his mercy. Brutus, having been born a "free man," resists the tyranny that such
an appointment could represent, although he loves and values Caesar as his best friend. Cassius also
resists the idea of Caesar becoming king, but it is clear in this scene that Cassius resents Caesar's rise to
power, especially considering that Caesar is epileptic, deaf in one ear, physically weak, and no greater
than any other man. Cassius attempts to manipulate Brutus into participating in the conspiracy to come,
using Brutus' love for the empire and his devotion to freedom as means. Brutus, however, is aware of
the "dangers" into which Cassius would lead him, and hesitates until he learns from Casca that Marc
Antony has tried to give Caesar a crown, which leads him to agree to meet Cassius the next day.
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The failed coronation leads back to the nature of Caesar's character. As reported by Casca, Caesar is
offered a laurel or coronet three times in this scene, and refuses all three times. The purpose of this,
from Casca's view, is to win the crowd's approval. Caesar also knows that without the approval of the
Roman Senate, the crown means very little, which is why Casca refers to the incident as "mere foolery."
Caesar's action here is amplified by a sudden swoon, which leads the masses to feel sorry for him. (It is
not clear whether this swoon is intentional or a result of epilepsy, but it is most certainly well-timed).
Caesar's ability to manipulate the emotions of the Roman public establishes his position as a master
politician while striking fear into his political opponents. This incident, combined with Caesar's
popularity in the Senate and his military power, motivates Cassius into action and leads Brutus in the
direction of the conspiracy.
Scene iii: More omens open this scene, which takes place during a powerful lightning storm. Casca,
whose sour disposition would usually lead him to ignore fantastic events, trembles in fear of the storm,
as well as several other strange occurrences happening throughout the city. He tells Cicero of a slave
whose left hand burns unscorched, a lion wandering the streets, women who saw men walk in flames,
and an owl who shrieked midday in the marketplace. Cicero points out the obvious—something
important is about to happen. Cassius also recognizes the importance of the omens around him, and is
invigorated by it because he realizes that the omens point to the end of Caesar's power, although he
notes that the Senate has decided to make Caesar king the next day. It is this resolution that leads Casca
to agree to join the conspiracy to kill Caesar before he can be crowned, and Cassius notes that there are
several other senators ready to assist in the murder. However, despite the number of "honorable"
senators involved in the scheme, the conspirators all realize that Brutus' participation in the murder is
vital. As Caesar's best friend and an honorable member of the Senate, Brutus legitimizes the murder
because he has no personal or political reason to kill Caesar other than his love for Rome. Cassius
continues to manipulate this love by sending Brutus several notes from "citizens" urging Brutus to
action.
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ACT 2
Scene I: The complication in Act II begins with Brutus, who begins to receive the various notes left by
Cassius. Brutus ponders Caesar's ambition, which is the main root of his fear that Caesar will become a
tyrant. Although Brutus knows that his friend is extremely ambition, he has never seen anything that
would indicate that Caesar might become tyrannical if crowned king. However, the mere thought of
giving Caesar the opportunity to become a tyrant is enough to frighten Brutus into action. Brutus also
notes that the only way to stop Caesar from becoming king is to kill him, and becomes resolved to do
this upon reading the letters. Brutus also recalls the soothsayer's warning, and realizes that Caesar must
be killed the next day (the ides of March) before he can be crowned.
When the conspirators arrive, Brutus immediately takes charge of the situation, despite his previous
reticence about participating at all. It is Brutus who refuses to let the conspirators swear an oath to kill
Caesar, and remind them that shaking hands should be enough to bind them together. Brutus also
rejects involving Cicero in the conspiracy despite his good and wise reputation because he does not
finish what he starts. Most importantly, Brutus rejects the notion of killing Antony, who Cassius notes is
a "shrewd contriver" whose ambition may hurt the conspirators. Despite this, Brutus convinces Cassius
to allow Antony to live because they will have killed too many people. Brutus also underestimates
Antony in this scene, claiming that Antony is nothing more than a playboy puppet of Caesar. Cassius, of
course, proves himself to be correct by the end of Act III—if Antony had been eliminated, the
conspirators might well have succeeded in winning over the Roman public to their opinion. However,
now that Brutus is committed to the conspiracy, he is the one who will make all of the decisions,
whether or not they are accurate ones.
Another side of Brutus' character is revealed in his conversation with Portia. Portia is not the typical
Roman wife—she is educated and beautiful, and has, until this point, shared a fairly equal relationship
with her husband. Portia notices that Brutus is troubled as opposed to ill, and she begs him to reveal his
thoughts to her. She wants to share in Brutus' troubles, but Brutus insists on protecting her from
knowledge of the conspiracy. Although he loves his wife and promises to give her the explanation she
seeks, Brutus has already separated himself from her by agreeing to kill Caesar. This separation is what
eventually leads to Portia's death. By separating himself from his wife, Brutus once again demonstrates
that he places his political duty above everything else and does not realize the ramifications of his
decisions.
Scene ii: While the lightning storm continues, Caesar leaves his bedchamber to see who has come to
visit him. Calphurnia, who has spent the night having nightmares of Caesar's death, begs him not to
leave the house, especially considering that today is the ides of March. Despite the fact that "the
heavens blaze forth the death of princes" and the numerous omens that have occurred during the night,
Caesar insists on going to the Senate, stating that everything that has threatened him vanishes when he
faces them, once again indicating his inflated opinion of his own power. Even when a messenger comes
with news from the augurers that he should not leave his house because they could not find a heart
within the beast that they sacrificed for a vision of the future, Caesar still insists on going to the Senate.
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It is only when Calphurnia begs on her knees that Caesar agrees to stay home. This action recalls the
previous scene when Portia begs Brutus on her knees to tell her what is troubling him. Both men agree
to do what their wives want but never actually follow through on it. In this case, Decius Brutus arrives
and flatters Caesar into coming to the Senate House when Caesar reveals to him that Calphurnia has
made him agree to stay home. Caesar tells Decius this because he does not want the senators to believe
that he is too frightened by all of the omens to come. Decius then reinterprets Calphurnia's dream to a
more agreeable end and then informs Caesar that the Senate has decided to make him king. Caesar's
tremendous ego is far too large to resist Decius' flattering interpretation of the flowing statue, the idea
that he might be called a coward for not coming to the Senate, and the coronation that is now
emminent, which is why Caesar chooses to go to the Senate House.
Scenes iii-iv: These two scenes function to contribute to the rising action leading up to Caesar's death. In
scene 3, Artemidorus reveals the conspiracy in a letter to Caesar, hoping to deliver it to him as he passes
into the Senate House. In scene 4, Portia, who suspects that Brutus is plotting to kill Caesar, sends Lucius
to his master to see what he is doing. Meanwhile, the soothsayer tells Portia that he, too, will be going
to the Senate House to attempt to get Caesar to "befriend himself." Both scenes create tension because
the entire plot of the play hinges on which party gets to Caesar alone first—the conspirators or those
who conspire to protect Caesar.
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ACT 3
Scene I: Although the conspirators escort Caesar to the Senate House, both Artemidorus and the
soothsayer are able to speak with Caesar prior to his entry into the Senate. Caesar brags that the ides of
March have come (implying that there has been no major incident), but the soothsayer reminds him
that the day has not yet passed. Despite this, the warning is ignored. Artemidorus fares no better—
when he gives Caesar the letter informing him of the conspiracy, Caesar chooses to read the one from
Trebonius first, stating that what concerns him personally will be the last issue to be addressed.
Although both of these warnings worry Casca, who fears the conspiracy has been discovered, they do
not touch Caesar at all because Caesar refuses to see what the conspirators are capable of.
The murder of Caesar is couched in an appeal to Caesar. Metellus Cimber begs that his brother, Publius
Cimber, be allowed to return to Rome as an enfranchised citizen. Caesar refuses, stating that while
lesser men can be flexible, he must be "constant." He also tells the conspirators that he does not want
anyone kneeling before him because he does not want that kind of flattery. Despite this, the
conspirators all kneel, and because Caesar refuses to repeal Publius Cimber's banishment, Casca begins
the murder. Although all of the conspirators stab Caesar, Shakespeare implies that it is Brutus who
actually kills him: "Et tu, Brute?—Then fall, Caesar" (l. 85). Indeed, it is Brutus who has given legitimacy
to this plot, and the conspirators may not have carried it out without him. He is also the one who has
taken charge of the conspiracy even though he did not originally want to participate in it. Because of
this, the idea that Brutus is the one who actually kills Caesar is at least figuratively correct.
Although the conspirators are successful in stopping Caesar from becoming king, they have little idea of
how to proceed next, which is evident in their dealings with Antony and the Roman public. Antony, who
chooses to flatter Brutus so that he will survive to avenge Caesar, shakes hands with the conspirators,
indicating that he will agree to their plans. Cassius, however, is once again suspicious of Antony, and
attempts to bribe him with thoughts of power, but this offer is ineffective. Brutus, too moved by the
murder that has just occurred and too anxious to justify his actions, tells Antony that there are reasons
for Caesar's death and that Antony can speak at Caesar's funeral if he agrees not to speak against the
conspirators (although censorship is certainly not a part of the freedom and liberty that the conspirators
claim they have provided to Rome). Cassius, of course, turns out to be correct in his assessment of
Antony—Antony intends to avenge Caesar whether he is foresworn or not.
Scene ii: The people of Rome have heard the news of Caesar's death by this point and insist on an
immediate explanation. The crowd, as suggested in Act I, scene 1 by their support of Caesar over
Pompey, is easily swayed. They at first yield to Brutus' "logical" explanation for why the conspirators
killed Caesar. Brutus claims that he killed Caesar because of Caesar's ambition, which would have
resulted in the enslavement of the "free" citizens of Rome. He then points out that the only people who
should be offended by Caesar's death are those who want to be slaves. Brutus claims that the death of
Caesar is necessary for the benefit of Rome and that, should the time come that he is a detriment to his
country, he should be put to death as well. The irony here is that Brutus' actions have resulted in the
death of a caesar and the beginning of a civil war, and, as such, have been a great harm to the empire.
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The public, fickle as always, accepts Brutus' arguments and demand to make him Caesar. Then, in an
attempt to be fair and to "render unto Caesar," Brutus persuades the crowds to listen to Antony's
funeral oration. It is by doing this that Brutus makes one of his most fatal errors in the execution of the
conspiracy.
When Antony speaks, the crowd does not want to listen initially. What changes their minds is the
method in which Antony delivers his speech. Instead of trying to convince the public to feel sorry for
Caesar, Antony uses reverse psychology by stating that he will not praise him. He then proceeds to
mention all of the good Caesar has done, from being a good friend to bringing in money and slaves to
helping the poor. While doing this, Antony uses the statement "Brutus says he was ambitious, and
Brutus is an honorable man" at first to calm the crowd and later to remind them of the hypocrisy of the
conspirators. Antony also uses Caesar's manipulation techniques, including dramatic pauses and
crocodile tears, to change the crowd's opinion. He also gives the public time to consider what he says.
What finally motivates the crowd is their own greed—when they discover that the will leaves money to
all of the citizens and donates his property to the general public, their anger leads to rioting. Had Brutus
stayed to hear Antony, he might have been able to prevent the crowd from turning against the
conspirators. However, the conspirators are forced to flee the city, and Antony goes in search of
Octavius, Caesar's heir, in order to decide on a plan of action.
Scene iii: This scene serves to further portray the violence and illogical nature of the Roman public.
When Cinna the poet (as opposed to Cinna the conspirator) goes outside despite a warning in a dream
that he should stay in, several citizens kill him despite the fact that they know he is not a conspirator
simply because they are in a killing mood. After two other scenes highlighting the moods of the Roman
public, it is not a surprise that they should do so. The masses turned on Pompey in favor of Caesar
despite Pompey's tremendous popularity, they turned on Caesar in favor of Brutus after one speech,
and they turned on the conspirators in favor of Antony and Caesaar after one more speech (and a
"will"). They have also ransacked the city by this point. This is one of the major themes of the play—
those who would have power must be able to ingratiate themselves with the masses. It is because
Caesar and Antony are master politicians that they are able to succeed and overcome otherwise-popular
figures like Pompey and Brutus. Those who cannot control popular opinion will end like Pompey and
Brutus—destroyed by those more popular than they.
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ACT 4
Scene i: The triumverate of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus begin this scene much in the same way that
the conspirators planned in Act II, scene 1. They make several decisions about who will live and who will
die, citing reasons for each. They also attempt to extract money from Caesar's will, despite Antony's
assurances in Act III, scene 2 that much of the money will go to the general public. Once Lepidus leaves,
Octavius and Antony dispute his usefulness. Although Antony criticizes Lepidus as a horse that always
needs direction, Octavius comes to his defense because he is a good soldier. Despite Octavius' young
age, he is now Caesar, and he makes it clear in this scene that he will not be brushed aside by Antony
despite Antony's greater breadth of experience. These tensions foreshadow the problems of Antony and
Cleopatra.
Scene ii: This scene serves to counterpoint the situation in scene 1. Like the triumverate, the alliance
between Brutus and Cassius does not appear to be as solid as it once was. Lucilius informs Brutus that
Cassius does not treat him as well as he once did, indicating that Cassius is angry with Brutus. Indeed,
when Cassius appears, he immediately accuses Brutus of wronging him, even though they are still in
public. Brutus reminds him that they should speak privately, as a public disagreement is hardly
constructive for an army that needs to maintain morale, and that they need to present a united front.
They then move to Brutus' tent.
Scene iii: The argument continues in this scene. The accusations that fly back and forth between Brutus
and Cassius underscore the tension of the failed conspiracy. Cassius, who killed Caesar out of jealousy
and does not worry about being honorable, is angered by Brutus' morality even though this is the very
attribute that made him so valuable to Cassius in the conspiracy plot. Brutus, on the other hand, is
angered by Cassius' pragmatism, although this is what convinced Brutus to kill Caesar. The pressure to
win this war is also affecting both men, who are on the run despite believing that they did what was best
for their country. The friends do make up and find reasons for their ill humor—Cassius blames his
mother, and Brutus tells Cassius that Portia has committed suicide.
The next section of the scene deals with military strategy. Although Cassius once again has the better
idea by suggesting that they wait on attacking and make the forces of the triumverate find them, Brutus
insists that they attack at Phillipi before Octavius and Antony are able to get more soldiers. Brutus' plan
sounds logical, but like his speech in Act III, scene 2, and his refusal to kill Antony and Act II, scene 1,
Brutus has overlooked the wisdom of Cassius. Cassius points out that it would be better to make Antony
and Octavius seek them out because it will tire their forces while their own are able to rest and defend.
When Cassius tries to make Brutus see his point, Brutus refuses to listen. Cassius once again agrees to
Brutus' plan, even though he knows better than to do so. If Cassius' ideas had been followed throughout
this play, the conspirators might well have controlled Rome. But because Brutus takes over as the head
of the conspirators, the conspirators' plans fail.
This failure becomes evident to Brutus in the last section of the scene. The ghost of Caesar appears to
Brutus, calling itself Brutus' "evil spirit." It then informs Brutus that he will see the ghost again at Phillipi,
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suggesting that Brutus will die. Brutus, just like Caesar and Cinna the poet, ignores the omen given to
him. He knows he will see Caesar at Phillipi, as he indicates on line 330, but he chooses to do nothing to
avoid it. The accuracy of the omens in this play suggests that there are signs that can predict the future
but that people refuse to heed them.
ACT 5
Scene i: The discord in the conspirator camp during the last scene is once again paralleled by the
disagreement between Octavius and Antony in this scene. Despite his lack of military experience,
Octavius correctly predicts that the conspirators would attack at Phillipi, even though Antony thought
they would not. Octavius also demands that he be the one to attack from the right side. When Antony
asks why Octavius continues to question him, Octavius simply tells him that he is not crossing Antony,
but will do as he pleases despite Antony's suggestions. It is clear from the opening part of this scene and
the previous scene that no matter who eventually wins this battle, there will be no harmony in Rome.
Once the two sides have traded insults, Cassius and Brutus reveal more of their character in
conversation with Messala and each other. Cassius notes that today is his birthday, and that he is being
forced to fight a battle on this day against his will because of Brutus. It is at this point that Cassius
reveals that he has begun to believe in omens, having seen the two eagles that had stayed with his
legion fly away that very morning. However, Cassius has demonstrated belief in omens before. On the
night before Caesar's assassination, it is Cassius who is invigorated by the otherwise terrifying
occurrences because they signified Caesar's downfall. He believed this at the time despite claiming to be
a believer in the teachings of Epicurus, who denied the existence of the supernatural. Because Cassius
disagrees with Brutus' strategy in attacking at Phillipi and because he is beginning to believe in omens,
Cassius makes his pact with Brutus to ensure that neither one of them will ever be taken prisoner.
Scene ii: In Scene 2, Brutus sees a weakness in Octavius' forces. Brutus' assessment of the situation is
correct, but he leaves Cassius' army to the mercy of Antony. While the battle is balanced, this action
eventually proves to be another miscalculation that leads to Brutus' downfall.
Scene iii: The results of Brutus' action in scene 2 manifest themselves in this scene, where Cassius' army
is about to be overcome by Antony's forces. When Cassius sends Titinus to see if Brutus has been
successful, his servant mistakes Titinus for a soldier that is taken prisoner. Not waiting for word to come
from the camp, Cassius, once again believing in bad omens, decides to have his slave Pindarus kill him.
Titinus blames this on a "lack of trust," which has created the destructive situation. This lack of trust,
which is also evident between Octavius and Antony, will continue to plague Rome after the battle.
Brutus' reaction to Cassius' death demonstrates that he has not progressed in his understanding of
warfare or the situation at hand. When he sees Cassius' body, Brutus' first inclination is to blame Caesar:
"O Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet;/Thy spirit walks abroad and turns our swords/In our own proper
entrails" (ll.105-107). Given the omens, especially the appearance of Caesar's ghost, as well as the
expert military advice of Cassius, Brutus should have known not to attack at Phillipi. Instead of taking
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responsibility for that decision, Brutus blames the power of Caesar, and instead of learning from his
military mistakes, he orders a second attack.
Scene iv: In this scene, Antony demonstrates that despite being portrayed as a playboy and a betrayer,
he still does have some honor. When Lucilius pretends to be Brutus in order to protect him, Antony
orders that he be kept safe and given "all kindness." Antony orders this because he sees the worth of
Lucilius and knows that he deserves to be treated with honor. Antony will demonstrate this again in
scene 5 in his description of Brutus.
Scene v: The final scene of the play begins with Brutus in defeat. He begs several of his friends to help
him kill himself, but their love for him is so strong that they cannot bring themselves to do so. This is
because, as Brutus notes, he has never in his life found anyone that has betrayed him. This is ironic in
that although Brutus loved Caesar, Brutus betrayed Caesar out of good for his country. Brutus' final
lines, "Caesar, now be still./I killed not thee with half so good a will," imply that he was more hesitant to
kill Caesar in than he is himself now. The honor that Antony shows in scene 4 is evident again in this
scene, as is the respect of Octavius. When Octavius and Antony discover that Brutus has committed
suicide by his own sword rather than be taken prisoner (which was considered an honorable way to die
by the Romans), both Octavius and Antony are respectful of his servants and of him. Octavius takes
Strato as a servant, and Antony gives Brutus a short but important eulogy, noting that Brutus, not
Caesar, was "the noblest Roman of them all" (l. 74). Not to be outdone, Octavius orders a proper burial
for Brutus, even though Roman military code did not require proper burial of an enemy. Octavius even
orders that Brutus' body lie in his own tent, a type of "lying in state" not usually accorded to traitors.
However, despite the solemnity of the moment, Octavius is still determined to celebrate the "glories of
this happy day," even though all of the repercussions of this event have yet to unfold (Shakespeare
leaves that part of the story to Antony and Cleopatra).
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THEMES
The crux of Julius Caesar is a political issue that was as urgent in Shakespeare's Elizabethan England as it
was in Caesar's day. It revolves around the question of whether the killing of a king is justifiable as a
means of ending (or preventing) the tyranny of dictatorship and the loss of freedom. Brutus strikes
Caesar down is the name of liberty, fearing that absolute power and Caesar's view of himself as more
than a mere mortal will enslave Rome to the will of a single man. This was a problem with which the
educated members of Shakespeare's society grappled, with those believing in a divine right of kings to
rule pitting themselves against the claim that regicide is warranted when liberty is at stake. Brutus, at
least, seems to be motivated by this Republican doctrine. It is important to note that none of the
conspirators are champions of popular rule. Indeed, Brutus fears that the people will anoint Caesar as
their absolute monarch (I.ii.77-78). The violent actions of the base mob confirm his view of the common
people as an irrational body capable of surrendering their liberty (and that of Rome's nobles) to Caesar.
Immediately after Caesar is slain, Brutus proclaims to his fellow conspirators that "ambition's debt is
paid" (III.i.82). Ambition is in fact a central theme of the play. Its centrality is underscored by Mark
Antony's use of the word "ambition" in his funeral oration for Caesar. He asks the crowd the rhetorical
question: "Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?" after recounting that Caesar enriched the public coffers
and wept when the poor cried. If this was "ambition," Mark Antony argues, then it should be made of
"sterner stuff." Having secured the people's tacit assent to the view that Caesar was not ambitious,
Mark Antony then points out that Brutus claims that Caesar was ambitious and that Brutus is an
"honorable" man (III.ii.90-95). The discordance here leads to the conclusion that Brutus and others were
wrong about Caesar and that they are, therefore, not honorable men. Caesar, as Shakespeare clearly
shows, was in fact ambitious. He is lured by Decius into coming to the Senate by the prospect of his
being crowned king. Ironically, though, the most ambitious of the play's characters is not Caesar or
Brutus, but Mark Antony, who exploits the situation at hand to become a member of the ruling
triumvirate along with Julius Caesar's heir apparent Octavius (Augustus Caesar).
Ambition, in the conventional meaning of the word, is the cause, but not the primary motive, of the
conspiracy against Caesar. For all of the conspirators except Brutus, envy and resentment toward Caesar
fuel their individual decisions to assassinate this "colossus." Envy is most evident in Cassius, who
complains: And this man
Is now become a god, and Cassius is
A wretched creature, and must bend his body
If Caesar carelessly but nod on him.
(I.ii.115-118)
Cassius measures himself against Caesar and finds no reason that he should not hold the same power as
this self-proclaimed "god." There is, however, no explicit plan for Cassius to seize the rule of Rome once
Caesar is dead. The minor conspirators of the plot are generally motivated by dissatisfaction with
Caesar's high-handed treatment of them and by personal grievances.
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Brutus, however, is ambitious in the sense of being divided between two visions of the future. Brutus
has no complaint against Caesar as he is, but fears what Caesar might become if the people and the
Senate crown him as Rome's king. "He would be crown'd; / How that might change his nature, there's
the question" (II.i.12-13), as Brutus poses it to himself. Unlike Cassius and the others, Brutus does not
act out of personal envy or resentment over past wrongs, but out of fear for the future of the Roman
Republic. For the sake of Rome, Brutus takes personal responsibility for the murder of its ruler, bathing
his hands in Caesar's blood as an open acknowledgment of his deed. But after the tyrannicide is done,
Brutus continues to be plagued by doubts and haunted by great Caesar's ghost. Trying to straddle the
present and the future, Brutus acts irrationally, making a series of self-defeating political and military
blunders.
While a Roman future without Caesar temporarily prevents tyranny, it yields an even worse outcome
from the standpoint of the Republic as well as in the view of Shakespeare and the play's Elizabethan
audiences: civil war. Just before inciting the mob to action, Mark Antony foresees the carnage ahead
and predicts:
And Caesar's spirit, ranging for revenge
With Ate by his side come hot from hell,
Shall in these confines, with a monarch's voice
Cry 'Havoc!' and let slip the dogs of war,
That this foul deed shall smell above the earth
With carrion men, groaning for burial.
(III.i.270-275)
The "foul deed" of regicide unleashes complete civil disorder, the effect of preventing Caesar from
exerting "god-like" control over Rome being anarchy. This theme of civil disorder stemming from the
death of a king is dramatically captured in Act III, scene iii, in which a blood-thirsty mob kills the poet
Cinna even after realizing that he is not the conspirator Cinna. When the head of the state, be it Caesar
or an Elizabethan monarch, is severed from the body of the nation, violent spasms ripple throughout
society. Although Shakespeare is sympathetic toward Brutus and the cause of liberty, Julius Caesar
presents a cautionary message about the wages of regicide, an act that disturbs the civil order and
undermines the natural order.
Disease is a complementary motif in Julius Caesar. Brutus complains of being sick before the
assassination and after learning of Portia's suicide. Other conspirators, Cinna for example, see the death
of Caesar as the cure that will heal them and Rome at large. Insomnia is rampant throughout the play.
Caesar ironically complains about sleepless men like Cassius and finds his own slumber disturbed by
Calphurnia's prescient nightmare. Brutus is unable to sleep on the cusp of the battle at Philippi, the
ghost of Caesar issuing the ominous vow that they will meet again. Omens, portents, and signs of
calamity abound. The act of killing a king has its effects on the conscious level of political order and at
the subconscious level of the human psyche.