INTRODUCTION TO THE
WORLD OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative Research:
Some Interconnected Underpinnings
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‘making meaning’ of the world around us
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questioning the possibility of objectivity; asserting the
primacy of subjectivity
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visiting and re-visiting the qualitative–quantitative divide
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the central importance of paradigm or worldview: “a basic
set of beliefs that guide action” (Creswell, p. 19). What is
the researcher’s political compass?
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positivism, post-positivism, advocacy/participatory, pragmatism
emergence of the interpretive communities: critical
theory, (feminism(s), anti-racism, postcolonialism, queer
theory…
Some examples of paradigms or
worldviews and their relationship to
research
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positivism
post-positivism
advocacy/participatory
pragmatism
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positivism
Social and political context are
present but peripheral
Facts are derivable and real
Objectivity is possible and
desirable
Gold standard is the
randomized control
trial
Qualitative evidence is
acknowledged, but
considered at the
bottom of valid
evidence
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post-positivism
An evolution from positivism,
with some of the logical,
quantitative aspects
remaining
Social and political contexts
are considered
Facts are based in their social
and historical context
Objectivity is not possible:
subjective experience is
central; however, postpositivist research has
some elements of
reductionism
There are many realities
Qualitative evidence is equally
valued and necessary along
with quantitative evidence
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Advocacy/participatory
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Emerged with the
recognition that postpositivism imposes
structural laws and theories
that do not reflect the
experience of marginalzed
and racialized peoples
Concerned with social
change to address
oppressive societal
structures
Emancipatory: From
‘subjects’ to ‘participants’;
includes an action agenda
that may change the lives
of participants and
researchers
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Pragmatism
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The focus is on the
outcomes (actions ,
situations, and
consequences) of the
research---what needs
to be done and what is
the most pragmatic way
to get it done
There is a concern with
applications— what
‘works’— and solutions
to problems
Not committed to any
one system of
philosophy and reality
(but…)
Emergence of the Interpretive Communities
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Feminism(s)
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concerned with social inequality +
patriarchy…taking women’s
perspectives into account…(e.g
Marilyn Waring and women’s global
economic contribution)
Intersectionality (more on this later)
e.g. evolving feminisms such as
Black Feminism (Sojourner Truth…),
and their relationship to health
concerns such as cardiac
pathophysiology, primary health
care…
Feminism has evolved to include
concerns about all oppressed groups
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“People call me a
feminist whenever I
express sentiments
that distinguish me
from a doormat”
(Rebecca West, age 20,
1913)
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Anti-Racism and Post
Colonialism
 concerned with the
historical structure and
experience of racism,
colonialism, and
oppression (e.g. Indian
Act, generational
trauma transmission
and mental health
concerns from a
research perspective)
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Shares emancipatory
goals of action research
Note: these interpretive
approaches are NOT
MUTUALLY
EXCLUSIVE— there can
be a fluid interplay
among these
approaches
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Critical Theory
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concerned with liberation
from oppressive social
(economic, political)
circumstances
(oppressions of racism,
classism, sexism,
heterosexism…)
Focuses on historical
social problems of
domination, alienation,
social struggles, and a
critique of society,
envisioning new
liberatory possibilities
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Critical Race Theory
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Concerns itself with many
of the same groundings
as Critical Theory, with a
focus on racism and
intersectionality.
The goals of CRT include:
generating first-voice
accounts of racism and
oppression; eradication
of racial subjugation
while recognizing that
race is a social construct;
addressing
intersectionaity for social
change
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Queer Theory
 Concerned with identity,
sexuality, gender in a
transformative
manner— social change
is often an aspect of
queer theory
 Moves beyond ‘…gay,
lesbian, homosexual
theory’
 Works to challenge and
undercut identity as
singular and fixed, or
‘normal’
Introduction to the qualitative
research process
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thinking about the world around us—
what do we see and what does it actually
mean to us? What are the qualitative
dimensions?
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developing research questions about what
we ‘see’
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deciding on an approach to answer the
research question (e.g. critical theory and street
youth: The mental Health Experiences of Female Street
Youth, Master’s Thesis, Dalhousie University, 1999,
McGibbon)
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thinking about ethical considerations related to
our approach (e.g. OCAP— ownership, control,
access, possession)
deciding on the specific methods we will use for
data collection (e.g. interviews, focus groups,
textual analysis, photos, performance art…)
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deciding about our approach to validity
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deciding how we will analyze our data
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findings, ‘re-findings’, and knowledge exchange
Research questions
in the real world
SEXY INC ©
Developing Qualitative Research Questions based
in Sexy Inc ©: An Overview
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Answering the main research question
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Who are your participants?
Starting with your main Research Question…
Crafting in-depth interview questions: how many, of
what nature…
The issue of ‘leading the witness’ in the types of
questions you choose
Note: The framing of your research questions is
tied to your research approach (grounded theory,
phenomenology…more on this later)
Research Questions Continued
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Some of the differences between quantitative and
qualitative research questions
 Quantitative: numerical relationships
(correlations, comparisons, ratios,
percentages, descriptive stats…)
Ecological footprint map
(Worldmapper ©)
Population Health Statistical
Comparisons: Inequities based
on Disability
Survey Reports:
‘McDonaldization’
Qualitative: Meanings; understandings;
insights,;first-voice accounts; social, political,
and cultural contexts…
The Experiences of Fathers
with a Premature Baby
Elders’ Experiences with
Caregiving in the Hospital Setting
Modern Dance and Disability:
Challenging Stereotypes
Through Performance Art
The Lived Experience of
growing up in a ’Smoking’
Home
The Mental Health Experiences of Hurricane
Katrina Survivors
Art as Political Movement (Banksy)
Refugees in the New Millennium:
Global Homelessness
‘Mixterminator’:
Performance Ethnography
Some key ideas to consider
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Regarding the QUAL-QUAN ‘divide’: Although
quantitative research has underpinnings in
positivism, it can be very much grounded in
theoretical perspectives such as feminism,
critical theory, and post-colonialism
Some examples: Grace-Edward
Galabuzi’s ‘Economic Apartheid’
(2006) (Canada, secondary analysis)
Shaw & Dorling’s (1996)
‘The widening gap:
Health inequalities in Britain in
the new millennium’ (UK, secondary analysis
& geographic information science)
Key ideas (cont’d)
Although qualitative research has its underpinnings
in lived experience, it can also be ‘positivist’
depending on the research question and the
approach to inquiry (e.g some studies in heart
health, poverty)
In other words, the quantitative/qualitative
dichotomy requires deeper scrutiny
The MAIN point is that worldview and theoretical
perspectives drive the research process
regardless of the research approach
Key ideas (cont’d)
Reality is complex, constructed and
ultimately subjective
 Research is an interpretative
processes
 Knowledge is best achieved by
conducting research in the natural
setting
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‘Seeing’ Worldview:
Some Practical Applications
H1N1 (Swine Flu) preparedness
1. From a positivist perspective
2. From a critical perspective: Feminism
3. From a critical perspective: Anti-racism
Evidence-Based Medicine/Nursing
1. From a positivist perspective
2. From a critical perspective: Feminism
3. From a critical perspective: Anti-racism
QUAL Research and Philosophical
Assumptions
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Qualitative research is grounded in age-old
philosophical concerns:
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Ontological: What is the nature of reality (is it
fixed? Is it objective or subjective…)
Epistemological: What is the relationship
between the researcher and that being researched?
Axilological: What is the role of values?
Rhetorical: What is the language (rhetoric) of
research?
Methodological: What is the research process?
Applying philosophical thinking to the
research process (see table, next slide)
Social concern (including nursing
concern) to be researched:
1. Childhood obesity
2. Gambling addiction
3.
4.
Philosophical
Assumption
Ontological
Epistemological
Axiological
Rhetorical
Methodological
Positivist
Research eg
Participatory/
Emancipatory
Research eg
The Qualitative Research
Proposal
Bottorff, 2008; Creswell, 2007; Denzin &
Lincoln, 2008; Morse, 1998, 2007
Purpose of a Research Proposal
(Bottroff, 2008)
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Communicates research plan to others (e.g., funding
agencies)**Write for a multi-disciplinary audience
Serves as a detailed plan for action
Serves as a contract between investigator and
funding bodies when proposal is approved
Qualitative designs are “emergent” rather than
fixed.
The results of qualitative research are unpredictable
(Morse, 1994)
Questions a proposal must answer
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Why should anyone be interested in my
research?
Is the research design credible,
achievable, and carefully explained?
Is my research ethical?
Is/are the researcher(s) capable of doing
the research?
Sections of Typical Qualitative
Proposal
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Introduction
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Review of Literature
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Related literature and theoretical traditions
Design and Methods
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Introduce topic and significance (the “why bother?”)
Statement of purpose, research questions/objectives
Overall approach and rationale
Sampling, data gathering methods, data analysis
Trustworthiness (Soundness of the research)
Ethical considerations and consent forms
Knowledge Translation and Mobilization Plan
(Timeline)
(Budget)
(Appendices)
Introducing the Study –
1st paragraph (Bottroff, 2008)
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Goal: capture interest in the study
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Focus on importance of study (Why
bother with the question?)
Clear and concise (details will follow
later)
Synopsis of the primary aim of the
study
Persuasive logic backed up with factual
evidence
The Problem/Research Question
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Selective and persuasive – building a case
for what is known or believed, what’s
missing, and how the study fits in.
Literature is used to demonstrate
openness to complexity of phenomenon,
rather than funneling toward an a priori
conceptualization.
Methods – challenges here
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Quantitative designs are more
familiar to reviewers
Qualitative researchers have a
different language---it takes more
‘space’ (the need to teach qual
ideas to the reviewers, in addition
to outlining your proposed research)
Methods (cont’d)
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Orientation to the Method:
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Description of the particular method
that will be used and its
creators/interpreters
Rationale for qualitative research
generally and for the specific method to
be used.
Rationale: Qualitative Studies are
Valuable for Research…
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delves in-depth into complexities and processes on
little-known phenomena or innovative systems
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focuses on informal and unstructured processes in
organizations
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seeks to explore where and why policy and local
knowledge and practice are at odds
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focuses on real, as opposed to stated, organizational
goals
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is research that cannot be done experimentally for
practical or ethical reasons
Marshall & Rossman, 1999
Sample
Purposive or theoretical sampling
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The purpose of the sampling
Characteristics of potential types of persons,
events or processes to be sampled
How decisions about sampling will be made.
Sample size
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Estimates provided based on previous
experience, pilot work, etc.
Access and recruitment
Data Collection and Analysis
(Bottroff, 2008)
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Types: Individual interviews, participant
observation, focus groups, personal and public
documents, internet-based data, videos, etc. (all
vary with different traditions)
Analysis methods vary depending on qualitative
approach
Add DETAILS and MORE DETAILS about how data
will be gathered and processed (procedures
should be made public, not magical)
Data Management & Analysis
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How will data be keep organized and retrievable?
How will data be “broken up” to see something
new?
How will the researchers engage in reflexivity
(e.g., be self-analytical)?
Convinces the reader that the researcher(s) is
sufficiently knowledgeable about qualitative
analysis and has necessary skills.
Trustworthiness, Interpretive
validity… (Soundness of the
research)
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Reflected throughout the proposal, And address
this specifically, using relevant criteria for the
qualitative approach used
Examples of strategies used:
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Triangulation
Prolonged contact with informants, including
continuous validation of data
Continuous checking for representativeness of data
and fit between coding categories and data
Use of expert consultants
More on interpretive validity later…
Additional aspects of a proposal
(More on these aspects later…)
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Ethical considerations
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(more in our class on Ethics)
Consent forms
Sensitive issues, vulnerable, ‘under threat’ people(s);
ownership, control, access, possession…
Links to professional codes of ethics (e.g CNA)
Dissemination: ‘Knowledge translation and
exchange; Knowledge mobilization’
(Timeline)
(Budget)