Language
 Nouns
a person, place, thing, or idea
Ex. The entire platoon reached the summit
before nightfall.
 Proper
noun- names a particular person,
place, or thing

Ex. Elizabeth Montgomery wrote a book about
her father.
 Common
noun- names any general person,
place, thing, or idea

Ex. The Amazon river has many navigable
tributaries.

Collective- names a group or  Compound- a noun formed by
collection not a single person or joining two or more words
object.
 Ex. Mother-in-law, cupcakes,


Abstract- names a quality,
action, state, or idea
(something that can’t be
touched, tasted, etc.)

post office
Ex. Jury, herd, crew, flock
Ex. Love, joy, freedom,
hopelessness

Concrete- opposite of abstract
(something you can touch,
taste, feel, etc.)

Ex. girl, desk, bird, Monica
 Verbs-
words that express action or state
of being; linking verbs
 Action verbs- tell what someone or
something is doing

Ex. He sings loudly.
 State
of being verbs – are forms of the be
verb which can serve as main verbs,
helping verbs or linking verbs.

Ex. Is, are, was, were, am, be, being
 Linking
verbs- joins the subject with any
modifiers
 Ex. She looks great.
She is great.
 She sounds great.
 She smells great.
 She feels great.

 Regular
verbs- do not change the root of
the word to change the tense.


Ex. Talk , talks, talked, talking, talked
Ex. Decline, declines, declined, declining,
declined
 Irregular
verbs- changes the root of the
word to change the tense and does not
follow a pattern.


Ex. Do, does, did, doing, done
Ex. Lie, lies, lay, lying, lain
 Subjects
and verbs must agree in number
 Subject- who or what the sentence is
about

Felicity is upset.
 Verb
what the subject does
Felicity was given clean up detail.
 Felicity
or Kenisha (is, are) absent.
Pronouns- take the
place of a noun
 Antecedent- the
noun that the
pronoun takes the
place of
 Pronoun &
Antecedent must
agree in number
and gender.

1st
I , me, We,
person my
us, our
2nd
You,
person your,
yours
You,
your,
yours
3rd
He,
they
person she, it
 Gender-
masculine (male), feminine
(female), neuter (cannot determine)

Ex. Monica gave (his, her) neighbor five pair of
shoes.

Ex. Jim and Antony took (his, their) sister to
the dentist.

Ex. The dog scratched (her, its) nose.
General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to
another if the time frame for each action or state is
the same.
 Ex. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed
down from rivers and streams.
 Contains is present tense, referring to a current
state; washed down is past, but should be present
(wash down) because the minerals are currently
continuing to wash down.
 Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash
down from rivers and streams.

 General
guideline: Do shift tense to
indicate a change in time frame from
one action or state to another.
 Examples:
The children love their new
tree house, which they built
themselves.

Love is present tense, referring to a
current state (they still love it now;)
built is past, referring to an action
completed before the current time
frame (they are not still building it.)


Pronoun cases are
nominative,
possessive, and
objective
Nominative- serves as
the subject of
sentences

Ex. I am your friend.

Possessive- shows
ownership


Ex. This is my child.
Objective- generally
come after
prepositions.

Ex. Give the candy to
them.
 The
choice of active or passive voice is
not a grammatical error. For effective
expression your choice will depend on the
point of view you want to emphasize.


Active voice- The audience applauded her
performance.
Passive voice- Her performance was applauded
by the audience.
 Adjectives
–are used to describe
nouns and pronouns

Ex. My house, four cats, blue crayon, London
bridge
 Adverbs-
are used to describe verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs

Ex. Move quickly, drove yesterday, speaks too
quickly
 Words
that sound similar or spell similar
can often be confused. Knowing the
meaning of the words is a way to
eliminate confusion.

Ex. Accept/Except


Accept is a verb that means to receive willingly.
Except is a preposition that means "but" or "with the
exception of."
 Concise
Language- A
hallmark of
effective writers is
the ability to
express the
desired message in
as few words as
possible.
 Good writers, in
other words, use
language which is
straightforward
and to-the-point.

Ex. Before making a
decision about whether
the person on trial is
guilty or innocent in this
case, the members of the
jury should be sure to
carefully think about,
ponder and reflect on all
of the important and
relevant testimony in the
case.

This sentence could be
improved by using only
one of the key phrases:
"...to reflect on..."
Formal language is a professional way of
speaking or writing.
 Contractions are not used in formal language.
 Ex. Do not complete the assignments until all
instructions have been read.
 Informal language is a way of speaking or writing
that is associated with writing or talking to
friends.
 I, you, we tend not to be used in more formal
writing (except in letters etc.). Instead the
style may be more impersonal . An
introductory it or there may begin sentences.
 Ex. We can’t come here today.

Simple sentence- 1
independent clause
 Ex. The baby is
crying.
 Compound sentence2 or more
independent clauses
 Ex. The baby is
crying, but no one
hears him.
 Complex sentence- 1
dependent clause plus
one independent
clause

Ex. Although the
baby’s bottle is near
by, the baby is
crying.
 Compound complex
sentence- 1 or more
dependent clause plus
2 or more
independent clause.
 Ex. Although the
baby’s bottle is near
by, the baby is
crying, but no one
hears him.


Parallelism means repeating grammatical forms
to convey similar ideas. By grammatically
balancing words, phrases, and clauses a writer
allows the reader to navigate through an essay
with ease. Parallel structure creates pleasing
rhythms and make sentence and paragraphs
flow.

EXAMPLES
 Not Parallel: Joe likes driving, running, and to
play baseball.
 Parallel: Joe likes driving, running, and
playing baseball.
 Capitalize
the word I wherever it appears.
 Capitalize the first word in a sentence.
 Capitalize the first word in a direct
quote.
 Capitalize proper nouns.
 Use commas in dates and addresses
 Ex. Birmingham, AL
October 22, 2006
 Use
commas with introductory words and
nouns of address


Ex. Monica, your food is ready.
Yes, I did see your eyeglasses.
 Use

commas in series
Ex. I ordered two burgers, one Sprite, and six
nuggets.
 Use

Ex. The lady drove pass the car, and she blew
her horn.
 Use

commas in with quotation marks
Ex. “Please give your sister some help,” said
mom.
 Use

commas in compound sentences.
commas with appositives
Ex. Ms. Pontoo, an English teacher, is not at
school today.
 Use
semicolons to separate independent
clauses not joined by a conjunction

Ex. Monica sews dresses; she loves to make
outfits.
 Use
semicolons to separate items in a list
or series.

Ex. The judging panel consists of: John, a local
pharmacist; Peter, the football coach; and
Amy, a choir member.
 Use

colons in digital timing
Ex. 8:25 p.m.
 Use
colons to introduce a list, but don’t use
it after a verb.

Ex. Please bring back the following items from
the store: chicken, bread, sugar, and tea.

Quotation marks should be used around a person’s exact
words


Use quotation marks around short works


Ex. “No, that is not my note,” said Katie.
Ex. a poem

a song title

a short story or a chapter title of a longer work

a title of a newspaper or magazine article

titles of television or radio programs
Use quotation marks to emphasize words

Ex. The “spoiled” baby yelled all day.
 Italics
or underlining are used most often:
for titles of longer works: books,
magazines, newspapers, films, TV shows,
a complete symphony, plays, long poems,
albums:
 Albert Borgmann's book, Crossing the
Postmodern Divide
the TV show Frasier
the film It Happened One Night
the magazine Adirondack Life
the newspaper The Miami Herald
Longfellow's poem Evangeline
the Beatles album Abbey Road
 Use

Ex. He is– he’s
 Use

apostrophes with contractions
apostrophes with possesive nouns
Ex. James’s house


Paragraph should
start with a topic
sentence, have
supporting details,
and close with a
concluding sentence
which summarizes.
The information
should be presented
in a logical or
sequential order from
start to finish.

A typical paragraph is
organized like this:
I. The Main Idea
Sentence:
A. Supporting Detail
#1
B. Supporting Detail
#2
C. Supporting Detail
#3
II. Concluding (or
Summary) Sentence
Reading
 The
supporting details give more
information about the topic. They are not as
general as the main idea. Instead, they help
the reader understand more about the main
idea.

Look at this example paragraph. Then look at how the details
are organized into an outline.
There are three main benefits from exercise: weight loss, muscle
tone, and cardiovascular improvement. First of all, a moderate
exercise program such as bicycling, walking, jogging or aerobics
for thirty minutes four days a week will result in weight loss for
the average person. An increase in activity means the body will
burn more calories, resulting in weight loss. Second, moderate
exercise helps develop and tone muscles in the arms, legs, back,
neck and shoulders. The body uses these muscles to exercise, and
the activity helps the muscles become stronger. The heart, the
most important muscle in the body, gets stronger with exercise,
which makes the heart work more efficiently. This brings about
the third benefit -- cardiovascular improvement. Exercise causes
the heart to pump blood throughout the body more efficiently.
The lungs deliver more oxygen to the cells, and breathing is
easier. All of these benefits are the result of exercise, so start an
exercise program today!
I. The Main Idea Sentence: There are three main benefits
from exercise: weight loss, muscle tone, and
cardiovascular improvement.
A. Supporting Detail #1: weight loss
B. Supporting Detail #2: muscle tone
C. Supporting Detail #3: cardiovascular improvement
II. Concluding Sentence: All of these benefits are the result
of exercise, so start an exercise program today!

Each of the details in the paragraph expands, or gives
more information about, the main idea. These details are
also called the paragraph's development. Ideas in a
paragraph must be developed logically. This means that
the writer must use details that the reader can expect to
read about after reading the main idea sentence.
 Chronological
Order
 Sequencing information in order from what
happened first
 Ex. __4__ Tie your shoe laces.



__2___ Put on your socks.
__3___ Put on your shoes.
__1__ Find your socks.
 SPATIAL
ORDERSpatial Order uses details to describe
things according to their closeness to
each other.
Ex. - A clown from head to toe - A
Mountain from top to bottom
Ex.- A room from side to side, the ocean,
the sky etc.
Order
of Importance
Order of Importance uses reasons or
details… in an order from either
least or greatest …or least
important to greatest importance.
Word Ex. Most Importantly, next, and
last. Then, first, next, and Least
important.

Do what is asked of you.
 Write your name first name on the last line of the paper
at the left-hand margin.
 On the first line on the paper write the numbers 1
through 9. Start at the left and print the numbers. Leave
a space between each number.
 Circle the number 6.
 Draw a star in the upper left-hand corner of the page.
 Fold your paper in half the long way.
 Open up your paper, then fold it the opposite way.
 Use the tip of your pencil to poke a hole in the center of
the paper (the place where the two folds meet).
 Draw a heart around the hole you made in your paper.
 Write the first initial of your last name in the upper
right-hand corner of the page.
 On the last line on the page, write the word done near
the right margin.
 The
main idea sentence tells the reader
what the paragraph will be about.
The Lookout Mountain Tunnel
by Randy Newcomb
Read this story. Use it to complete the next page.
I don't know why Jimmy and I took Jesse Connor's dare to go through the
Lookout Mountain Tunnel. It sure wasn't easy to get to, especially in the middle
of a cold November night. We had to make it past Old Man Sylva's six hound
dogs. Right behind Old Man Sylva's yard was the old railway bridge that crossed
Dillsboro Creek. When you looked over the side of the bridge, all you could see
was the dark, slimy water about four feet below. We didn't even know for sure
if trains still used this track. If one did come, that water sure looked colder
and slimier than either of us could stand to think about. The bridge, though,
was nothing compared to the tunnel. Five steps down the track into the tunnel
and you couldn't see your hand right in front of you. If we turned back, Jesse
would tell everyone we were chicken. He would know if we didn't make it, too.
We were to pick up something at the other end of the tunnel and bring it to
school.
We were trying to figure out what he had left there when we saw the light.
It came right down the middle of the track in our direction. Jimmy says he
heard a train whistle, but we found out later that the end of the tunnel had
been blocked for years.
Well, guess what? That water was just as bad as we'd imagined. Worse still
were the chicken noises our friends made when we showed up at school
without Jesse's proof. But never fear. Jimmy and I are going to get even with
Jesse. See, we've got this plan. . .

Draw Conclusions
Complete the chart
below after reading
"The Lookout
Mountain Tunnel."
Then create your
own chart on a
separate sheet of
paper. Draw another
conclusion about a
story event, and find
supporting details.
Conclusion:
Jimmy and the
narrator think
there's a train,
so they jump
into the water.
Conclusion: It
was Jesse who
used a light to
make it seem as
though there
was a train
coming.
Story clue: It is
very dark in the
tunnel.
Story clue: The
tunnel was
blocked for
years.
Story clue:
Story clue:
What I already
know about fear:
What I already
know about
tricks:
Other
conclusions I
can draw:
Other
conclusions I
can draw:
Cause/Effect
-- the writer tells
the reasons "why" something
happens (causes), or the writer
tells the results (effects) of
something.

According to Webster's Dictionary a fact is
"anything that is done or happens; anything
actually existent; any statement strictly true;
truth; reality."
 The AHSGE consists of reading, language,
math, science, and social studies.

An opinion is defined as "indicating a belief,
view, sentiment, conception.“
 The AHSGE is a waste of time.

Wikipedia defines Propaganda as a specific
type of message presentation directly aimed at
influencing the opinions or behavior of people,
rather than impartially providing information.
 Concluding
sentence and summary statement
are the same.
 Summary statement sums up what the
paragraph is about.
Argument -- the writer explains why his/her
reasons for an opinion are the best.
 A good argument will have, at the very least:
 a thesis that declares the writer's position on
the problem at hand;
 an acknowledgment of the opposition that nods
to, or quibbles with other points of view;
 a set of clearly defined premises that illustrate
the argument's line of reasoning;
 evidence that validates the argument's
premises;
 a conclusion that convinces the reader that the
argument has been soundly and persuasively
made.

 Logic—
It's important to understand that an argument can be logical
without necessarily being true. Consider, for example, the
following:
All women are brilliant.
 I am a woman.
 Therefore, I am brilliant.

Is this argument logical? Indeed, it is. The test for logic in
this instance is not whether the statement is reasonable,
but whether the argument follows the almost
mathematical construction of the syllogism.









Analyze literary elements as they relate to the
comprehension of a passage, but not label or define the
elements.
Drama terminology: structure, foreshadowing, tragedy,
tragic flaw, comedy, and soliloquy
Plot, setting, character, point of view
Methods of characterization
Plot terminology: plot, exposition, complications, climax,
denouement, conflict, rising action, falling action, and
inciting force
Aside, irony, mood, theme, tone, paradox, and in medias
res
Allegory, ballad, dialect, epic, parody, point of view,
Satire, sonnet forms
Identify and interpret implied purpose
 Simile-
a comparison of two unlike things
using like or as.

Ex. She sings like a bird.
 Metaphor-
a comparison of two unlike
things without using like or as.

Ex. She is a rose.
 Personification-
giving human
characteristics to none human objects

Ex. The wind whistled.

Always remember that context clues come both before and
after the unknown vocabulary word.

An unfamiliar word is often linked to a familiar word,
usually through the use of an appositive.


Ex. The congressman worried about his constituents, his
voters, back home.
Sometimes you can determine the meaning of an
unfamiliar word by looking at the examples that
accompany it.

Ex. She was a collector of baseball memorabilia, frequently
purchasing rare trading cards, autographed balls and signed
uniforms.
Words are frequently used with synonyms that
help to define them. Look for signal words such
as:
 Also
 And
 Besides
 Furthermore
 In addition
 Ex. The stranger appeared gaunt and very thin
for such a young man.
 Rudeness, in addition to surliness, will not be
tolerated.

Conversely, an unfamiliar word can be linked
with an opposite definition. Watch carefully for
signal words such as:
 Although
 But
 Conversely
 On the contrary
 Rather than
 Ex. His voice was pleasant and clear, not
guttural at all.
 Rather than promote ultraism, she advocated
conservative viewpoints.

Preview text features to make a prediction about
the text content. Use graphic displays such as
charts, maps, graphs, and timelines to make a
prediction about the text content
 Determine the organizational pattern of a
passage, but not label the pattern
 Chronological order
 Spatial order
 Order of importance
 Discern comparison and contrast relationships
in a passage
 Discern cause and effect relationships in a
passage

 Encyclopedia
 Dictionaries
 Library
– card catalog
 Table of content
 Index

http://www.ocde.k12.ca.us/ctapread/2009.html

http://www.kidskonnect.com/FigurativeLanguag
e/FigurativeLanguageHome.html
 http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/