Historical Research
What is Historical Research?
• The systematic collection and evaluation of data to
describe, explain, and understand actions or events
that occurred sometime in the past.
• There is no manipulation or control of variables as in
experimental research.
• An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened
during a certain period of time as completely and
accurately as possible.
The Purposes
of Historical Research
• To make people aware of what has happened in
the past in order to:
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Learn from past failures and successes
Apply them to present-day problems
Make predictions
Test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends
Understand present educational practices and
policies more fully
Steps Involved
in Historical Research
• Defining the Problem
• Locating relevant sources
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Documents
Numerical records
Oral statements
Relics
• Summarizing information obtained from
historical sources
• Evaluation of historical sources
• Internal criticism
• External criticism
Categories of Sources
• Documents
– Written or printed materials that have been produced in some
form or another.
• Numerical records
– Considered as a separate type of source in and of themselves
or as a subcategory of documents.
• Oral Statements
– Are stories or other forms of oral expression that leave a
record for future generations.
• Relics
– Are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can
provide some information about the past.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Primary source
– one prepared by an individual who was a
participant in or a direct witness to the event being
described.
• Secondary source
– a document prepared by an individual who was not
a direct witness to an event, but who obtained a
description of the event from someone else.
Data Analysis
in Historical Research
• Historical researchers use the following
methods to make sense out of large amounts
of data:
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Theoretical model leading to a content analysis
Use of patterns or themes
Coding system
Quantitative data to validate interpretations
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Historical Research
• Advantages
– Permits investigation
of topics and
questions that can
be studied in no
other fashion
• Disadvantages
– Cannot control for
threats to internal validity
– Limitations are imposed
due to the content
analysis
– Researchers cannot
ensure representation of
the sample
Action Research
The word "academic" is a
synonym for irrelevant. (Alinsky,
1969)
What is Action Research?
• Action Research is conducted by one or more individuals
or groups for the purpose of solving a problem or
obtaining information in order to inform local practice.
• Such studies are seriously limited in generalizability.
Why Action Research?
• Teachers do not find research persuasive
or authoritative.
• Mainstream research has not been
relevant to practice nor has it addressed
teachers’ questions.
• Findings from research often not
expressed in ways that are
comprehensible to teachers.
Key Characteristics of Action
Research
• Persuasive and Authoritative
– Teachers are invested in the legitimacy of the
findings.
• Relevant
– Think Stanovich and multiple causation
• Accessible
• Problem solving approach
• Not a fad
– Good teachers have always systematically looked at
the effects of their teaching.
Basic Assumptions Underlying Action Research
Assumption
Example
Teachers and other education
professionals have the authority to
make decisions.
A team of teachers, after discussions with the school
administration, decide to meet weekly to revise the
mathematics curriculum to make it more relevant to lowachieving students.
Teachers and other education
professionals want to improve their
practice.
A group of teachers decide to observe each other on a weekly
basis and then discuss ways to improve their teaching.
Teachers and other education
professionals are committed to
continual professional development.
Teachers and other education
professionals will and can engage in
systematic research.
The entire staff—administration, teachers, counselors, and
clerical staff—of an elementary school go on a retreat to plan
ways to improve the attendance and discipline policies for the
school.
Following up on the example just listed above, the staff decides
to collect data by reviewing the attendance records of chronic
absentees over the past year, to interview a random sample of
attendees and absentees to determine why they differ, to hold a
series of after-school roundtable sessions between disciplineprone students and faculty to identify problems and discuss
ways to resolve issues of contention, and to establish a
mentoring system in which selected students can serve as
counselors to students needing help with their assigned work.
Assumptions Underlying
Action Research
• A number of assumptions underlie action
research:
– Participants have the authority to make decisions
– Those involved are seriously committed to improving
their performance
– Educators and others involved in schools want to
engage in research systematically
– Those performing the research will make the
necessary changes and recommendations
Types of Action Research
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There are two main types of action research:
1)
Practical Action Research
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2)
Addresses a specific problem
Primary purpose is to improve practice and inform larger
issues
A “how to” approach
Participatory Action Research
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Philosophically driven
Empower individuals and groups to improve their lives and
bring about a social change
Stakeholders are involved and are active in all processes
Levels of Participation
• Provide information
• Become informed of
purpose of the study
• Receive findings
• Assist in data
collection
• Review findings
• Participate in
interpretation
• Participate in designing
the project
• Participate in problem
specification
• Initiate study
Steps in Action Research
•
There are four steps or stages in Action
Research:
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2)
3)
4)
Identifying the research question
Gathering the necessary information
Analyzing and interpreting the information
Developing a plan of action
Advantages of Action Research
• It can be performed by anyone, in any type of school or
institution
• It can help to improve educational practice
• It can help education and other professionals to improve
their craft
• It can help them learn to identify problems systematically
• It can build up a small community of research-oriented
individuals at the local level
Similarities and Differences Between Action Research &
Formal Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Action Research
Formal Research
Systematic inquiry.
Systematic inquiry.
Goal is to solve problems of local concern.
Goal is to develop and test theories and to
produce knowledge generalizable to wide
population.
Little formal training required to conduct such
studies.
Considerable training required to conduct
such studies.
Intent is to identify and correct problems.
Intent is to investigate larger issues, of local
concern.
Carried out by teacher or other local education
professional.
Carried out by researcher who is not usually
involved in local situation.
Uses primarily teacher-developed instruments.
Uses primarily professionally-developed
instruments.
Less rigorous.
Usually value-based.
Purposive samples selected.
Selective opinions of researcher often
considered as data.
Generalizability is very limited.
More rigorous.
Frequently value-neutral.
Random samples (if possible) preferred.
Selective opinions of researcher never
considered as data.
Generalizability often appropriate.
Participatory Action Research
“I think if the academic does the research
you are doing a disservice to the
community.”
Do you agree with this statement?
Why or why not?
In your opinion, what is the role of
academics, or outsiders, in PAR?