Name: Janine Crump
Professor Lasren
March 13, 2014
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Attention Grabber: Video
According to the video, what are some factors
mentioned that influence the decision making
process among administrators?
What are are some discussed qualities of a
successful school administrator?
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Classical Model:
Classical decision theory assumes that decisions should be
completely rational; it employs an optimizing strategy by
seeking the best possible alternative to maximize the
achievement of goals and objectives.
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1. A problem is identified.
 2. Goals and objectives are established.
 3. All the possible alternatives are generated.
4. The consequences of each alternative are considered.
5. Alternatives are evaluated in terms of the goals and
objectives.
6. The best alternative is selected.
7. Finally, the decision is implemented and evaluated.
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Administrative Model:
Herbert Simon ( 1947)
Assumption 1: Administrative decision making is
a dynamic process that solves some organizational
problems and creates others.
Assumption 2: Complete rationality in decision
making is impossible; therefore, administrators
seek to satisfice because they have neither the
ability nor the cognitive capacity to optimize the
decision- making process.
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Assumption 3: Decision making is a general
pattern of action found in the rational
administration of all major tasks and functional
areas in organizations.
Recognizing and defining the problem or issue.
Analyzing the difficulties in the situation.
Establishing criteria for a satisfactory solution.
Developing a strategy for action.
Initiating a plan of action.
Evaluating the outcomes.
Assumption 4: Values are an integral part of
decision making.
Decision-Making Process
 Step 1. Recognize and Define the Problem or Issue.
 Step 2. Analyze the Difficulties in the Existing
Situation
 Step 3. Establish Criteria for a Satisfactory Solution
 Step 4. Develop a Plan or Strategy of Action
 Specify alternatives.
 A)Predict the consequences of each alternative.
 B) Deliberate.
C) Select a plan of action.
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The search for alternatives to solve a particular
organizational problem is called problemistic
search.
Problemistic search is straightforward, usually
reflecting simplified notions of causality, and
based on two simple rules:
Search in the area of the problem symptom( s).
Search in the area of the current alternative( s).
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In the process of searching for satisfactory alternatives, decision
makers seek to keep the activity manageable by using simplified
decision rules called heuristics—
The recognition heuristic is the tendency to infer a higher value (
e. g., stronger, faster, higher) to that which is familiar.
The availability heuristic is the tendency for decision makers to
base their judgments on information already available to them
The representative heuristic is the tendency to view others as the
typical stereotype that they represent;
The anchoring- and- adjustment heuristic is a mental rule of
thumb in which existing information is accepted as a reference
point for decision making but is adjusted as new information
becomes available
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Means- end analysis is inappropriate because setting
objectives and generating alternatives occur simultaneously.
Good solutions are those upon which decision makers
agree regardless of objectives.
Alternatives and outcomes are drastically reduced by
considering only options similar to the current state of
affairs.
Analysis is restricted to differences between the existing
situation and proposed alternatives.
The incremental method eschews theory in favor of
successive comparisons of concrete, practical alternatives.
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1.
2.
Amitai Etzioni
Mixed scanning involves two questions:
What is the organization’s mission and policy?
What decisions will move the organization toward its mission and
policy?
a) Broad, organizational policy gives direction to tentative incremental
decisions.
b) Good decisions have satisfactory outcomes that are consistent with
organizational policy and mission.
c)The search for alternatives is limited to those close to the problem.
d)Analysis is based on the assumption that important information is
missing but action is imperative.
e)Theory, experience, and successive comparisons are used together.
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1. Use focused trial and error. First, search for reasonable alternatives; then select,
implement, and test them.
2. Be tentative; proceed with caution. Be ready to modify a course of action as
necessary.
3. If uncertain, procrastinate. Waiting is not always bad. When the situation is
ambiguous, delay as long as possible so that more information can be collected and
analyzed before taking action.
4. Stagger your decisions. Commit to a decision in stages.
5. If uncertain, fractionalize decisions. Staggered decisions can be tested in parts.
Do not invest all your resources to implement a decision, but instead use partial
resources until the consequences are satisfactory.
6. Hedge your bets. Implement several competing alternatives.
7. Be prepared to reverse your decision. Try to keep decisions tentative and
experimental.
Select the appropriate decision model based on
three questions:
Information: Is there sufficient information to
define a satisfactory outcome?
Time: Is there time to engage in a comprehensive
search?
Importance: How important is the decision?
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Organizational objectives emerge spontaneously; they
are not set beforehand.
Means and ends exist independently; chance or
happenstance connects them.
A good decision occurs when a problem matches a
solution.
The decision relies more on chance than rationality.
Administrators scan existing solutions, problems,
participants, and opportunities looking for matches.
The garbage can metaphor is a description of how
decisions sometimes occur; it is not a suggestion for
action.
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Under what conditions does stress have
unfavorable effects on the quality of decision
making?
Under what conditions will individuals use
sound decision- making procedures to avoid
choices that they would quickly regret?
What about the Teachers?
There are times when teacher participation
improves the quality of the decision as well as
times when it impedes effective decisions. The
better question is how and when teachers should
be included.
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Victor Vroom and his colleagues
Miner ( 1984, 1988, 2005) concludes that no
leadership theory surpasses the Vroom model in
either its validity or usefulness.
1. Quality Rule.
Use a unilateral approach to decision making only if the quality requirement is
low and the matter unimportant to subordinates, or the quality requirement is
low, the decision is important, and will be readily accepted by subordinates.
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2. Leader Information Rule.
Don’t make a unilateral decision if the quality of the decision is important and
you don’t possess sufficient information and expertise to solve the problem
alone.
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3. Trust Rule ( Goal Congruence).
Make a unilateral decision when the quality of the decision is important and
you can’t trust subordinates to decide on the basis of the organizational goals.
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4. Problem Structure Rule.
Involve knowledgeable subordinates to collect relevant information when the
quality of the decision is important, the problem is unstructured, and you lack
sufficient information or expertise.
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1. The Acceptance Rule.
Involve subordinates if their acceptance of the decision is critical for effective
implementation and you are unsure if they will accept an autocratic decision.
2. The Subordinate Conflict Rule.
Involve subordinates when there is conflict among subordinates, acceptance of
the decision is critical, and an autocratic decision is unlikely to be accepted.
3. Subordinate Commitment Rule.
A group decision should be made even when the quality of the decision is not
important, but its acceptance is critical and problematic. A group decision will
likely generate more acceptance and commitment than a hierarchical one.
4. The Subordinate Information Rule. Subordinates should not be called upon
to make a decision for which they have insufficient information or expertise.
1. The Time Constraint ( Motivation- Time).
Time is often critical. Time is not free. The amount of
time used in making a decision is a cost expressed in
terms of the loss of attention to other activities.
2. The Development Constraint ( MotivationDevelopment).
Subordinates often don’t have the knowledge and
skills to contribute. Decision making is a learned skill
developed through practice. To empower teachers
means to give them the skills and opportunities to
make important decisions.
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Autocratic: The leader using the existing information solves
the problem unilaterally.
Informed- Autocratic: The leader solves the problem
unilaterally after obtaining necessary information from
subordinates.
Individual- Consultative: The leader shares the problem
with subordinates, soliciting their ideas individually.
Group- Consultative: The leader shares the problem with
group members, solicits their ideas, and makes the decision,
which may or may not reflect the influence of subordinates.
Group- Agreement: The leader shares the problem with
subordinates as a group and together generates and
evaluates alternatives in an attempt to reach consensus.
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A decision tree is a pictorial scheme that traces
the possible decisions that arise by following a
set of decision rules.
The tree simplifies the paths for involving
teachers in decisions and defines the role of the
principal and teachers.
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The Hoy- Tarter model ( 1992, 1993a, 1993b,
2003, 2004) has evolved into a user- friendly
model that administrators can keep in their
heads and easily apply when the situation is
appropriate.
In a test of the models, solutions show that
using the two different models were congruent
with each other more than 90 percent of the
time;
Drawing on the work of Barnard ( 1938), Simon (
1947), and Chase ( 1951), Edwin M. Bridges ( 1967)
advances two propositions about shared decision
making:
1. As subordinates are involved in making
decisions located within their zone of
acceptance, participation will be less effective.
2. 2. As subordinates are involved in making
decisions located outside their zone of
acceptance, participation will be more effective.
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The test of trust: Are subordinates committed to the mission of the
organization? Can they be trusted to make decisions in the best
interests of the organization?
democratic situation decision is outside zone, trust
involved, decisions are either
by consensus or majority
rule.
conflictual situation –
decision is outside zone,
no trust, participation
should be restricted.
stakeholder situation: when
subordinates have a personal
stake in the issue but little
expertise. Limit participation
noncollaborative situation subordinates typically are
not interested. Avoid
participation
expert situation -subordinates
have no personal stake in the
outcomes but do have the
knowledge . Limit participation
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1. Group consensus: The administrator involves participants in the
decision making, and then the group decides.
2. Group majority: The administrator involves participants in the
decision making, and then the group decides by majority rule.
3. Group advisory: The administrator solicits the opinions of the
entire group, discusses the implications of group suggestions, and
then makes a decision that may or may not reflect subordinates’
desires.
4. Individual advisory: The administrator consults with
subordinates individually who have expertise to inform the
decision, and then makes a decision.
5. Unilateral decision: The administrator makes the decision
without consulting or involving subordinates in the decision.
Role
Function
Aim
Integrator
Integrates divergent
positions
To gain consensus
Parliamentarian
Promotes open
discussion
To support reflective
group deliberation
Educator
Explains and discusses
issues
To seek acceptance of
decision
Solicitor
Solicits advice
To improve quality of
decision
Director
Makes unilateral
decisions
To achieve efficiency
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Develop a culture that focuses on the goals of the school: students
come first.
Be authentic with teachers; tell it like it is.
Develop a culture of trust; principals and teachers need to trust
each other.
If teacher expertise is lacking, develop knowledge in those areas.
Don’t burden teachers with unimportant decisions.
Don’t give decision authority you don’t have.
Don’t engage teachers in shared decision making until they are
ready; they need to break old traditions and learn new ways of
deciding, so an incremental approach works.
Ultimately, to be successful, teachers must have useful knowledge,
be motivated to participate, and be willing to subordinate their
personal agendas for the good of the school.
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Caution! Effective yet complicated.
Avoid Group Think at all costs. ( pg.373)
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Conclusion/ Questions
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