THE STORMY ’60S
Chapter 38
Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit
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JFK is the youngest President elected,
World War II hero, Harvard educated,
from a wealthy family
Cabinet is young, mostly Harvard
educated, called his “brain trust”
Brother Bobby is Attorney General
Wants to be a more active president,
calls his vision for America the New
Frontier
Kennedy inspires idealism
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Peace Corps is an army of idealistic
volunteers that bring “first world” skills to
Third World countries
The New Frontier At Home
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JFK had only a narrow Democratic majority in
Congress; hard to get proposals through
Congress
Kennedy has problem with conservative
Southern Democrats
Most of his social legislation is axed by
Congress
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Kennedy’s disputes with Big Business
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They see him as unfriendly
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Kennedy does cut taxes though
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Announces project to put a man on the Moon.
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Costs 24 billion, but was successful in 1969.
Rumblings In Europe
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June 1961 Kennedy meets with
Khrushchev in Vienna
Berlin Dispute
Khrushchev threatens to cut off
Western access to Berlin to keep
population of Berlin from going to
democratic West
1961 begins construction of Berlin
Wall
Becomes symbol of Soviet
domination and repression of E.
Europe
Stubborn French
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Kennedy European tariff policy
He cut tariffs up to 50% to
promote trade between Europe
and the U.S.
French refuse to participate
They fear American domination
of Europe
French develop their own
nuclear arsenal and want a
Europe free of American
influence
“Flexible Response”
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With the end of colonization, the newly independent
colonies became a headache as they flared into civil
wars.
Congo
 Laos
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Leads Kennedy to move away from Ike’s “massive
retaliation” and to adopt the doctrine of “flexible
response”
develop an array of military responses that can be precisely
calibrated to the gravity of the crisis.
 Kennedy increases military spending and bolstered the
special forces.
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Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire
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Corrupt right-wing, pro-US government
in South Vietnam.
Communists in the south, Viet-Cong,
waging guerrilla civil war.
Late 1961 Kennedy sharply increases
US military advisors
Coup against South Vietnamese leader.
U.S. steps into Vietnam to foster political
stability
Kennedy increases military and economic
aid
Modernization theory- believed that
traditional societies could develop into
industrial, democratic nations by
following the Western nations path
Cuban Confrontations
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Latin American countries saw the
U.S. as a bully
Alliance for Progress
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Marshall Plan for Latin America to
provide aid for economic
development
doesn’t have much effect.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
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CIA backed plan to topple communist
government in Cuba
April 1961 invasion at Bay of Pigs
was a failure
Kennedy assumes full responsibility.
Pushed the Cubans further toward the
Soviets
Cuban Missile Crisis
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Castro pushed into the arms of the Soviets.
October 1962 Khrushchev starts to install nuclear
tipped missiles in Cuba
Spy photos reveal the missiles
Plan was to keep pressure on the US to back
down on issues in other parts of the world
Kennedy rejects air strike; instead orders a
military blockade and demands immediate
removal of missiles.
Russian ships and quarantine line
Khrushchev finally blinks when he agreed to a
compromise.
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Pulls missiles out of Cuba
US agrees to not attack Cuba and to pull missiles out
of Europe targeted at Soviet Union
Seems to be a clear US victory
Missile Crisis Fallout
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Khrushchev forced out of power
Kremlin begins an aggressive program of
military expansion; New Arms Race
Democrats gain in the midterm elections.
Kennedy begins to push for arms control
and greater communications between
Russia and the US.
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Hotline
Ban on above-ground nuclear tests agreed to in
1963
Kennedy urges Americans to live with the
Soviets as they are and find a method of
peaceful coexistence.
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Origins of the policy of Détente.
The Struggle For Civil Rights
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Kennedy moved very slowly on
Civil Rights
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Events forced the President’s
hand.
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Lack of southern Congressional
support
Freedom Riders tried to end
segregation in facilities serving bus
passengers
After violent incidents federal
marshals were sent to protect
Freedom Riders
Kennedy works with SCLC to
promote civil rights and to
register black voters
Civil Rights Violence
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Integrating Southern universities.
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Spring 1963 King begins a campaign
against discrimination in Birmingham.
Police reaction
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Kennedy forced to send in 3000 troops.
Attacked protesters with dogs and fire
hoses
All seen on TVs across the country
June 11, 1963 Kennedy responds.
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Calls for new Civil Rights legislation
Calls problem a moral issue
I Have a Dream
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Medger Evers black civil rights
worker is killed
August 1963, March on
Washington and King’s “I have a
Dream” Speech
September 1963 bombing of
black Birmingham church kills 4
black girls at Sunday School
Kennedy’s Civil Rights Bill was
making little headway and many
African Americans were growing
impatient
THE KILLING OF KENNEDY
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November 22, 1963
Kennedy is shot in Dallas
Johnson takes over as
president
The LBJ Brand On The Presidency
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Lyndon Johnson was profane, earthy, vain, idealistic
Master politician; former Senate Majority Leader in the
Senate.
Johnson’s Great Society
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Johnson puts power behind Civil Rights Bill.
Civil Rights Act of 1964.
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Prohibits discrimination in facilities open to the
public
Strengthened power to end segregation in
schools
Created federal Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission
Prevents both race and gender discrimination.
Southern Senators try to kill with a lengthy
filibuster.
Johnson launches a billion dollar war on
poverty designed to help those not yet
getting the benefits of America’s vast
wealth.
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Dubbed the Great Society Program.
Medicare/Medicade central pillar
New Deal type economic and welfare measures
designed to free Americans from poverty and
social injustice
Johnson Battles Goldwater In 1964
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Johnson is easily nominated in 1964; runs on a
very liberal platform.
Republicans nominate Senator Barry Goldwater
 very, very conservative.
 Strongly anti-red, strongly anti-New Deal.
 Believes in small national government
(Jeffersonian)
 Wanted American field commanders to have
authority to use tactical nukes in the battle
field.
Johnson convinces national that Goldwater
“scary”
 “In your heart you know he’s right” vs. “In
your gut you know he’s nuts”
Johnson wins biggest landslide in US history.
Tonkin Gulf Resolution
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Tonkin Gulf incident
August 1964 Johnson calls attack by North Vietnamese on U.S. Navy
ship unprovoked
Orders air raids on North Vietnam
Johnson uses to get Tonkin Gulf Resolution from Congress
Consequences?
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Gives the president a virtual blank check to use force in Southeast Asia
against the North Vietnamese.
Gives Johnson discretion to widen the war, which he does after the election.
The Great Society Congress
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Johnson has 2-1 democratic majority in both
houses of Congress.
Legislative slate passed by Johnson after the
1964 election was comparable to FDR’s 100days.
Sweeping package of social reform and new
aid to the poor and down-trodden.
Continues the war on poverty
Created the Dept. of Transportation and
Housing and Urban Development.
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Names the first Black cabinet secretary—Robert
Weaver
Creates national Endowment for the Arts
Legislative Landmarks
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Four legislative achievements at heart of Great
Society:
Federal Aid to Education
 Medicare for the Elderly/Medicaid for the Poor
 Immigration Reform
 Voting Rights Act
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Medicare and Medicaid provide medical insurance at
governmental expense for elderly and poor
Medicare and Medicaid join social security and
unemployment insurance as part of social safety net
Despite critics poverty did decline and general health
conditions improved for many Americans
Voting Rights Act
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In 1964 Voting Rights becomes the
main goal of civil rights movement.
Passage of 24th Amendment
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Freedom Summer of 1964 was a massive
voter registration drive in Mississippi
Three civil rights workers were murdered
MLK resumed voter registration drive in AL,
“March to Selma”
Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Johnson sends in federal officials to
oversee voter registration.
Over the next 25 years totally
transforms the south because blacks
are voting.
Black Power
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Voting Rights Act ends era of non-violence for civil rights
movement
Civil Right movement moves north and out of the control of
MLK, becomes more militant and violent
1965—Watts riots.
New voices advocate confrontation, violence and
separatism.
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Malcolm X
Stokely Carmichael
Black Panthers
Riots across the US in 1967, all shown on TV
Many white Americans become outraged
Civil Rights Movement increasingly focuses on economic
demands
MLK assassinated in 1968; wisest black voice gone.
Vietnam Escalation
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1965 Johnson escalates the war
Operation Rolling Thunder
Starts bombing and the use of
troops on the ground.
War becomes Americanized
By end of 1965, 184,000 America
troops; 1968 almost 500,000
Believes American escalation will
show US resolve and north will back
down.
Believes in domino theory
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The fall of one non-communist state
would cause neighboring countries to
become communist as well
US casualties start to mount, end is
nowhere in sight
Vietnam Vexations
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World opinion was turning against the US
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Appeared that US was beating up a thirdworld nation over US zeal to spank
communism.
Made it harder for US to respond
elsewhere
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Hawks vs. Doves
Six Day War (Israel and Egypt)
Led to a lot of domestic discontent.
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Many blamed Johnson.
Major protests in San Francisco, New York and on
college campuses.
Anti-war demonstrations gradually mounted on
campuses.
Draft resisters flee to Canada, burn draft cards,
burn flags
Quagmire
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By late 1960s opposition to the war was hardening.
1966-1967 Fulbright hearings.
Public feels increasingly misled about the war and
ability to win.
By 1968 had become the longest and most unpopular
foreign war in US history.
Government had failed to adequately explain why we
were fighting there and/or what was at stake.
Johnson, orders the CIA to spy on American anti-war
activists.
FBI turns against peace groups
Johnson stubbornly continues to assert that victory is just
around the corner.
Vietnam Topples Johnson
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Jan. 1968 Tet offensive
Political and psychological
victory for the Viet Cong
Military demands 200,000
more troops.
Johnson challenged from within
his party by Eugene McCarthy
and Robert Kennedy.
March 1968 Johnson’s
announcement he would not run
for the presidency
1968 Election Chaos
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Hubert Humphrey
front-runner for the
democratic nomination.
Strong challenge from
Robert Kennedy.
June 1968 Kennedy
assassinated after
primary victory in
California
Convention Chaos
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1968 Democratic convention in Chicago in chaos.
Democrats were bitter, divided and angry over the death of Kennedy, the
war, etc.
Many young, radical, anti war protester showed up to vent their frustration
The Chicago police and demonstrators clashed outside of the convention
Democrats came off looking like a disorganized, fratricidal mob.
Humphrey wins the nomination on the first ballot.
Richard Nixon and George Wallace
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Republicans nominate Richard Nixon
who is running as a conservativemoderate.
Platform
Tough on crime, , “hawk” on Vietnam
Supported by white, conservative
southern Democrats
George Wallace
American Independent Party.
Wallace ardently anti-integration
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“Segregation Now, Segregation tomorrow,
Segregation forever.”
Victory For Nixon
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Nixon and Humphrey have similar policies on VN. No real
choice between the two.
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As a result, many doves sat out the election because no standard-bearer
for their views.
Nixon wins by half a percentage point without carrying a single
major city and with no coat-tails.
Both houses of Congress remain Democratic. Democrats win
95% of the black vote.
Nixon wins only 43% of the vote because Wallace had
siphoned off votes from both. No mandate.
Wallace wins 46 electoral votes from the deep south. Largest
third-party electoral vote in American history.
Cultural Upheaval
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1960s become a dividing line of two different era of
morals, values and behavior
Vietnam, Civil Rights Struggle and materialism undermine
faith of youth in government and “establishment”
Roots in the 1950s among the “beats” who voiced
disillusionment with material pursuits
Division also appeared between more educated and less
educated Americans
Idea of shared purpose seemed to be losing its grip
Cultural Upheaval
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Organized students movements against
established authority
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1964 Free Speech movement in Berkley
1968 Students for Democratic Society were
anti-war and anti poverty; eventually
became a domestic terrorist group the
Weather Underground
Many young people became political and
cultural rebels
Many protests fueled by outrage over
Vietnam
Became opposed to traditional American
values, developed their own counterculture
Sexual Revolution (development of birth
control?) , gay rights also became issues at
this time