Organizational
Behavior, 8e
Schermerhorn, Hunt, and
Osborn
Prepared by
Michael K. McCuddy
Valparaiso University
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
2
Chapter 6
Motivation and Reinforcement
 Study questions.
– What is motivation to work?
– What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
– What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
3
Chapter 6
Motivation and Reinforcement
 Study questions — cont.
– What do the process theories suggest about
individual motivation?
– How can satisfaction and its linkage with
performance help tie together insights of the
motivation theories into an integrated
motivational model?
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
4
What is motivation to work?
 Motivation.
– The individual forces that account for the
direction, level, and persistence of a person’s
effort expended at work.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
5
What is motivation to work?
 Direction.
– An individual’s choice when presented with a
number of possible alternatives.
 Level.
– The amount of effort a person puts forth.
 Persistence.
– The length of time a person stays with a given
action.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
6
What is motivation to work?
 Reinforcement theories.
– Emphasize the linkage between individual
behavior and specific outcomes.
– Focus on observable behavior and outcomes.
– Managers can alter the outcomes to influence
direction, level, and persistence of motivation.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
7
What is motivation to work?
 Content theories.
– Focus on individual physiological and
psychological needs.
– Manager’s job is to create a work environment
that responds positively to individual needs.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
8
What is motivation to work?
 Process theories.
– Focus on the cognitive processes that
influence behavior.
– Examines why a person behaves in particular
ways relative to available outcomes.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
9
What is motivation to work?
 Motivation across cultures.
– North American motivation theories are
subject to cultural limitations.
– Motivation determinants and responses are
likely to vary considerably throughout the
world.
– Sensitivity to motivational variations is
important.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
10
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Reinforcement.
– The administration of a consequence as a
result of a behavior.
– Proper management of reinforcement can
change the direction, level, and persistence of
an individual’s behavior.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
11
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Classical conditioning.
– A form of leaning through association that
involves the manipulation of stimuli to
influence behavior.
– Involves an initial stimulus (unconditioned
stimulus) and a conditioned stimulus in the
learning of behavior.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
12
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 The classical conditioning process.
– Behavior is caused by an unconditioned
stimulus.
– A conditioned stimulus is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
– The conditioned stimulus is able to evoke the
behavior.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
13
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Operant conditioning.
– The process of controlling behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
– Focuses on the interplay of antecedents,
behavior, and consequences.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
14
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Antecedents.
– The condition leading up to or cueing
behavior.
 Behavior.
– The action taken by the person.
 Consequences.
– The outcome received by the person.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
15
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Law of effect.
– Theoretical basis for manipulating
consequences.
– Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is
likely to be repeated while behavior that
results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely
to be repeated.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
16
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Reinforcement emphasizes consequences
that can be manipulated.
– Extrinsic rewards:
• Positively valued work outcomes that are give to
the individual by some other person.
• Contrived rewards have direct costs and budgetary
implications.
• Natural rewards have costs only in terms of the
manager’s time and efforts.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
17
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod).
– The systematic reinforcement of desirable work
behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of
unwanted work behavior.
– Uses four basic strategies:
•
•
•
•
Positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement.
Punishment.
Extinction.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
18
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Positive reinforcement.
– The administration of positive consequences
to increase the likelihood of repeating the
desired behavior in similar settings.
– Rewards are not necessarily positive
reinforcers.
– A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the
behavior improves.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
19
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Principles governing reinforcement.
– Law of contingent reinforcement.
• The reward must be delivered only if the desired
behavior is exhibited.
– Law of immediate reinforcement.
• The reward must be given as soon as possible after
the desired behavior is exhibited.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
20
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Shaping behavior.
– The creation of a new behavior by the positive
reinforcement of successive approximations
leading to the desired behavior.
– Behavior is shaped gradually rather than
changed all at once.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
21
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Scheduling reinforcement.
– Continuous reinforcement.
• Administers a reward each time the desired
behavior occurs.
– Intermittent reinforcement.
• Rewards behavior periodically — either on the
basis of time elapsed or the number of desired
behaviors exhibited.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
22
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Schedules of intermittent reinforcement.
– Variable schedules typically result in more
consistent patterns of behavior than do fixed
schedules.
– Types of intermittent schedules:
•
•
•
•
Fixed interval.
Fixed ratio.
Variable interval.
Variable ratio.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
23
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Negative reinforcement.
– Also known as avoidance.
– The withdrawal of negative consequences to
increase the likelihood of repeating the desired
behavior in similar settings.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
24
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Punishment.
– The administration of negative consequences
or the withdrawal of positive consequences to
reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior
in similar settings.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
25
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Implications of using punishment.
– Punishing poor performance enhances
performance without affecting satisfaction.
– Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to
poor performance and dissatisfaction.
– Punishment may be offset by positive
reinforcement from another source.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
26
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Extinction.
– The withdrawal of the reinforcing
consequences for a given behavior.
– The behavior is not “unlearned”; it simply is
not exhibited.
– The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced
again.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
27
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Summary of OB Mod strategies.
– Positive and negative reinforcement.
• Used for strengthening desirable behavior.
– Punishment and extinction.
• Used to weaken undesirable behavior.
• Extinction may inadvertently weaken desirable
behavior.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
28
What are reinforcement theories, and
how are they linked to motivation?
 Ethical issues with reinforcement usage.
– Is improved performance really due to reinforcement?
– Is the use of reinforcement demeaning and
dehumanizing?
– Will managers abuse their power by exerting external
control over behavior?
– How can we ensure that the manipulation of
consequences is done in a positive and constructive
fashion?
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
29
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Content theories.
– Motivation results from the individual’s
attempts to satisfy needs.
 Major content theories.
– Hierarchy of needs theory.
– ERG theory.
– Acquired needs theory.
– Two-factor theory.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
30
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Hierarchy of needs theory.
– Developed by Abraham Maslow.
– Five distinct levels of individual needs.
• Physiological.
• Safety.
• Social.
• Esteem.
• Self-actualization.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
31
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Hierarchy of needs theory — cont.
– Five need levels occur in a hierarchy of
importance.
– Assumes that a given need level must be
satisfied before the next higher level need can
be activated.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
32
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Research evidence on hierarchy of needs
theory.
– Actually may be a more flexible hierarchy of
lower order needs and higher order needs.
– Needs vary according to:
• A person’s career stage.
• Organizational size.
• Geographic location.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
33
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Research evidence on hierarchy of needs
theory — cont.
– Satisfaction of one need level may not
decrease it importance and increase
importance of next need level.
– Hierarchy of needs differs across cultures.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
34
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 ERG theory.
– Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
– Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three
categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and
growth needs.
– Adds a frustration-regression hypothesis.
– More than one need category may be activated at the
same time.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
35
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 ERG theory — cont.
– Existence needs.
• Desire for physiological and material well-being.
– Relatedness needs.
• Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
– Growth needs.
• Desire for continued personal growth and
development.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
36
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Research evidence on ERG theory.
– Supporting evidence is encouraging.
– Addition of frustration/regression hypothesis
is a valuable contribution.
– Offers a more flexible approach to
understanding human needs.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
37
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Acquired needs theory.
– Developed by David McClelland.
– Three needs — achievement, affiliation, and
power — are acquired over time, as a result of
experiences.
– Managers should learn to identify these needs
and then create work environments that are
responsive to them.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
38
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Need for achievement.
– The desire to do something better or more
efficiently, to solve problems, or to master
complex tasks.
– High need for achievement people:
• Prefer individual responsibilities.
• Prefer challenging goals.
• Prefer performance feedback.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
39
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Need for affiliation.
– The desire to establish and maintain friendly
and warm relations with others.
– High need for affiliation people:
• Are drawn to interpersonal relationships.
• Seek opportunities for communication.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
40
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Need for power.
– The desire to control others, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for others.
– High need for for power people:
• Seek influence over others.
• Like attention.
• Like recognition.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
41
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Research evidence on acquired needs
theory.
– Identification of the the need profiles that are
required for success in different types of jobs.
– People can be trained to develop the need for
achievement, particularly in developing
nations.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
42
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Two-factor theory.
– Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
– Also known as motivation-hygiene theory.
– Portrays two different factors — hygiene
factors and motivator factors — as the primary
causes of job dissatisfaction and job
satisfaction.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
43
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Hygiene factors.
– Sources of job dissatisfaction.
– Associated with the job context or work
setting.
– Improving hygiene factors prevent people
from being dissatisfied but do not contribute to
satisfaction.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
44
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Motivator factors.
– Sources of job satisfaction.
– Associated with the job content.
– Building motivator factors into the job enables
people to be satisfied.
– Absence of motivator factors in the job results
in low satisfaction, low motivation, and low
performance.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
45
What do the content theories suggest
about individual needs and motivation?
 Research evidence on two-factor theory.
– Theory may be method bound.
– Theory fails to:
• Account for individual differences.
• Link motivation and needs to both satisfaction and
performance.
• Consider cultural and professional differences.
– These failures also apply to other content
theories.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
46
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Equity theory.
– Workplace development by J.Stacy Adams.
– People gauge the fairness of their work
outcomes in relation to others.
– Perceived inequity occurs when there is an
unfavorable social comparison of work
outcomes.
– When perceived inequity occurs, people will
be motivated to remove the discomfort.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
47
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Equity theory — cont.
– Felt negative inequity.
• Individual feels he/she has received relatively less
than others in proportion to work inputs.
– Felt positive inequity.
• Individual feels he/she has received relatively more
than others in proportion to work inputs.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
48
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Equity restoration behaviors.
– Change work inputs.
– Change the outcomes received.
– Leave the situation.
– Change the comparison points.
– Psychologically distort the comparisons.
– Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of
the comparison person.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
49
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Equity theory implications.
– Inequity perceptions are entirely from reward
recipient’s perspective, not from reward
giver’s perspective.
– The equity process must be managed so as to
influence the reward recipient’s equity
perceptions.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
50
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Research evidence on equity theory.
– Overpayment (felt positive inequity) results in
increased quantity or quality of work.
– Underpayment (felt negative inequity) results
in decreased quantity or quality of work.
– Stronger support for underpayment results.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
51
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Research evidence on equity theory —
cont.
– Overpayment and underpayment results are
closely tied to individualistic cultures.
– Collectivist cultures emphasize equality rather
than equity.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
52
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Expectancy theory.
– Developed by Victor Vroom.
– A person’s motivation is a multiplicative
function of:
• Expectancy.
• Instrumentality
• Valence.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
53
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Expectancy.
– The probability assigned by an individual that work
effort will be followed by a given level of task
accomplishment.
 Instrumentality.
– The probability assigned by the individual that a given
level of achieved task performance will lead to various
work outcomes.
 Valence.
– The value attached by the individual to various work
outcomes.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
54
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Motivational implications of expectancy
theory.
– Motivation is sharply reduced when,
expectancy, instrumentality or valence
approach zero.
– Motivation is high when expectancy and
instrumentality are high and valence is
strongly positive.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
55
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Managerial implications of expectancy
theory.
– Managers should act to maximize
expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences
that support organizational objectives.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
56
What do the process theories suggest
about individual motivation?
 Research evidence on expectancy theory.
– Theory has received substantial empirical
support.
– Multiplier effect is subject to some question.
– May be useful to distinguish between extrinsic
rewards and intrinsic rewards.
– Does not specify which rewards will motivate
particular groups of workers, thereby allowing
for cross-cultural differences.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
57
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Job satisfaction.
– The degree to which individuals feel positively
or negatively about their jobs.
– Job satisfaction can be assessed:
• By managerial observation and interpretation.
• Through use of job satisfaction questionnaires.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
58
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Key decisions that people make about their
work.
– Joining and remaining a member of an
organization.
– Working hard in pursuit of high levels of task
performance.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
59
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Joining and remaining a member of an
organization.
– Concerns attendance and longevity at work.
– Dissatisfied workers are more likely than
satisfied workers to be absent and to quit their
jobs.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
60
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Working hard in pursuit of high levels of
task performance.
– Concerns the relationship between job
satisfaction and performance.
– Alternative points of view.
• Satisfaction causes performance.
• Performance causes satisfaction.
• Rewards cause both performance and satisfaction.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
61
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Argument: satisfaction causes
performance.
– Managerial implication — to increase
employees’ work performance, make them
happy.
– Job satisfaction alone is not a consistent
predictor of work performance.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
62
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Argument: performance causes
satisfaction.
– Managerial implication — help people achieve
high performance, then satisfaction will
follow.
– Performance in a given time period is related
to satisfaction in a later time period.
– Rewards link performance with later
satisfaction.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
63
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
 Argument: rewards cause both satisfaction
and performance.
– Managerial implications.
• Proper allocation of rewards can positively
influence both satisfaction and performance.
• Satisfaction and performance are separate but
interrelated work results that are affected by reward
allocation.
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
64
How can satisfaction and its linkage with performance
help tie together insights of the motivation theories into
an integrated motivational model?
Work effort
needed
Organizational
support
Amount &
schedule of
contingent
extrinsic
rewards
Equity
comparison
Net amount
of valent
intrinsic
rewards
Organizational Behavior: Chapter 6
Satisfaction
Individual
attributes
Performance
Motivation
An Integrated Model of Individual Motivation to Work
65