The Mass Media
Chapter Summary
I. Introduction (208)
Television has had a tremendous impact on American politics. It provides us with information almost
instantaneously and has set the stage for leaders to take quick action affecting the scope of government.
The American political system has entered a period of high-tech politics in which the behavior of citizens
and policymakers, as well as the political agenda itself, is shaped by technology. The mass media
(television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet) are a key part of this technology.
II. The Mass Media Today (208-210)
An effective media strategy is crucial to any presidential campaign. A media event is a staged event
designed primarily for the purpose of being covered. Candidates must get the right image on TV news and
produce effective commercials. The media also are critical to day-to-day governing. Politicians’ images in
the press are good indicators of their clout. The Reagan Administration was particularly concerned with
media appearance.
III. The Development of the Mass Media (211-216)
A. Introduction
The mass media age is a relatively recent phenomenon. Franklin Roosevelt practically invented media
politics. He held two press conferences (presidential meetings with reporters) a week. He also effectively
used the radio, both as a candidate and while in office. Roosevelt knew how to feed the right story to the
right reporter and established a good relationship with the press. The events of the Vietnam War and
Watergate scandal soured the press on government. The media now try to ferret out the truth about
stories and no longer believe what politicians tell them. Investigative journalism, the use of detective-like
reporting methods to unearth scandals, pits reporters against political leaders. There are two kinds of
media, the print media (newspapers and magazines) and the broadcast media (television and radio).
B. The Print Media
The first American newspaper was printed in 1783, but newspapers expanded rapidly in the midnineteenth century with the “penny press.” The turn of the century was characterized by yellow journalism
and many newspapers consolidated into chains during the early part of the twentieth century. Newspaper
circulation rates have been declining since the rise of television. Although magazines are read widely, the
political content of the leading magazines is slim.
C. The Broadcast Media
The broadcast media have replaced the print media as Americans’ principal source of news and
information. The 1950s and early 1960s were the adolescent years for American television when the
political career of Richard Nixon was made and unmade. The first televised presidential debate occurred in
1960 between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy. Kennedy’s television appearance had a big impact on
the outcome of the debate. During the 1960s, television took the country to the war in Vietnam and had a
tremendous impact on why Americans turned against the war. Cable television has had a great impact
because it brings the news to the people and political leaders as it happens. More people rely on TV for the
news than any other medium and tend to believe what they see on TV more than what they read in the
newspapers.
D. Narrowcasting: Cable TV and the Internet
The future of political communication seems destined to bring more and more choices regarding what we
can see about our government, particularly as an increasing number of people subscribe to cable TV and
the Internet. Cable TV and the Internet tend to focus on a narrow particular interest rather than appealing
to a general audience. Hence, their mission can be termed “narrowcasting,” rather than the traditional
“broadcasting” practiced by the major networks.
IV. Reporting the News (216-223)
A. Introduction
News is what is timely and different, not routine. In their pursuit of high ratings, news shows are tailored
to a fairly low level of audience sophistication. News is, therefore, what is entertaining to the average
viewer.
B. Finding the News
Most news organizations assign their best reporters to particular beatsóspecific locations where news
frequently emanates from. Journalists rely almost exclusively on established sources to get their
information. Sometimes those who make the news feed stories to reporters in the form of trial balloons,
information leaked to the media to see what the political reaction will be. When reporters feel that their
access to information is being impeded, they may complain of censorship. Despite reliance on established
sources, enterprising reporters occasionally uncover their own stories.
C. Presenting the News
News coverage by the print and broadcast media tends to be superficial. TV news, in particular, is little
more than a headline service. Little attention is given to the issues during a presidential campaign and
even less when there is no campaign. Oddly, as technology has enabled the media to pass along
information with greater speed, news coverage has become less complete. In place of speeches,
Americans hear sound bites of fifteen seconds or less.
D. Bias in the News
It is a common belief that the news tends to be biased. However, the vast majority of social science
studies have found that reporting is not systematically biased toward a particular ideology or party. Most
stories present two opposing views and most reporters practice journalistic objectivity. The overriding bias
is toward stories that will draw the largest audience, such as stories with conflict, violence, disaster, or
scandal. Television is particularly biased toward stories that generate good pictures. Talking heads are
boring; viewers want more interesting visual stimulation.
V. The News and Public Opinion (223-225)
For many years scholars believed that the media had little more than a marginal effect on public opinion.
However, when the focus turns to how the media affects what Americans think about, more positive
results are uncovered. The media helps set the policy agenda. Television news can influence the criteria by
which the public evaluates political leaders by how they cover issues and events. Studies have shown that
news commentators have the strongest influence on public opinion changes. The media is a key political
institution that affects what Americans think about.
VI. The Media’s Agenda-Setting Function (225-226)
The policy agenda is “the list of subjects or problems to which government officials, and people outside of
government closely associated with those officials, are paying some serious attention at any given time.”
Policy entrepreneurs are people who invest their political capital in an issue and often use the media to get
their ideas placed high on the policy agenda.
The staging of political events to attract media attention has become a political art form used by all
presidents. The poor and downtrodden also can use the media to publicize their cause. This was important
to the civil rights movement. A long-term, positive image via the media is particularly important and
policy entrepreneurs depend on good will and good images. Often they find the need to hire a public
relations firm to help them with this.
VII. Understanding the Mass Media (227-229)
A. The Media and the Scope of Government
The watchdog function of the media helps to restrict politicians. When every new proposal is met with
skepticism, regular constraints are placed on the scope of what government can do. The press is
reformist-oriented. At the same time, once the media identifies a problem, they ask what the government
is doing about it. Though skeptical of what politicians say and do, the media report on America’s social
problems in a manner that encourages government to take on more and more tasks.
B. Individualism and the Media
The media furthers individualism in politics since politicians are much more capable of running for office on
their own and appealing directly to the people through television. The American institutional agenda has
changed because television finds it easier to focus on individuals than on groups. Political parties have
thus declined.
C. Democracy and the Mass Media
Widespread access to information could be a great boon to democracy, yet this has not happened. The
rise of the “information society” has not brought about the rise of the “informed society.” The media
argues it gives the public what it wants. To make a profit it must appeal to the maximum number of
people. People largely want their news to be entertaining and do not care to hear about complex political
issues.