管 理 學
第二章 管理學的演進
MANAGEMENT YESTERDAY & TODAY
When you surround an enemy, leave
an outlet free. —Sun Tzu
圍師遺闕，窮寇勿迫，此用兵之法也。
Today is ok, 何不跳過 Yesterday, 直接研討 Tomorrow?
社會科學的發展:
Economics? Psychology? Management? Marketing?
溫故知新，鑒往知來。
William James, (1842-1910）美國心理學之父，
The Varieties of Religious Experience (宗教經驗之種種) , (1902)
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綱要
1. Historical Background
2. Major Approaches to Management
3. Current Issues and Trends
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一、HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Ancient Management



Adam Smith


Egypt (pyramids), China (Great Wall)
Venetians (floating warship assembly lines, 會計)
The Wealth of Nations (1776), division of labor
Industrial Revolution


Substituted machine power for human labor
Created large organizations (management)
討論：學歷史，讀資治通鑑，應知今日事：解釋現在，
開拓文明視野。史前一萬年，一路玩到掛。
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兩百年來幾次技術革命

1700, 蒸汽機，Lancashire 紡織業中心（矽谷），Watt (Bill Gates)。

1830, 鐵路，輪船。

1900, Mass Production: 鋼鐵，電力，重工程，石油, 汽車, Carnegie,
Edison (GE), Rockefeller, Ford (dot.com)。

1940, 電腦 (1971, Information & Telecommunication)
討論：
上一波：石器時代4000BC, 銅3000BC, 鐵1000BC, 矽1968AD,
下一波？Biotechnology, Nanotechnology & Bioelectronics……
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二、MAJOR APPROACHES TO MGT
1. Scientific Management, 科學管理
2. General Administrative Theory, 一般管理理論
3. Quantitative Management, 數量方法
4. Organizational Behavior, 組織行為
5. Systems Approach, 系統途徑
6. Contingency Approach, 權變途徑
涓涓細流，匯成江河！
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1. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Fredrick Winslow Taylor

The “father” of scientific management

Principles of Scientific Management (1911)

Mental revolution: Using scientific methods to define the
“one best way” for a job to be done. ex. 21 lb.
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TAYLOR’S 4 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
1. Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work, which will
replace the old rule-of-thumb method.
2. Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker.
3. Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done
in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.
4. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and
workers. Management takes over all work for which it is better fitted
than the workers.
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
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
Reduction of wasted motion
 Developed the microchronometer to time worker motions and
optimize work performance


12生笑 (P.61)
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THERBLIG CHART
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HOW DO TODAY’S MANAGERS USE SM?
1. Use time and motion studies to increase productivity
2. Hire the best qualified employees
3. Design incentive systems based on output
討論：
1. Cast away, UPS VS. Federal Express, 北極特快車
2. 王董，王教授，成校長
3. SOP: McDonald, 鼎泰豐(18, 5+16g)，Toyota,
高鐵清潔作業，太陽劇團，The Phantom of the Opera
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2. GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY
 Henri
Fayol (p.62, 674)

practice of management was distinct from other
organizational functions

Developed fourteen principles of management that
applied to all organizational situations
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FAYOL’S 14 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
1. Division of work.
7.
Remuneration.
2. Authority.
8.
Centralization.
3. Discipline.
9.
Scalar chain.
4. Unity of command.
10. Order.
5. Unity of direction.
11. Equity.
6. Subordination of
individual interests to
the general interest.
12. Stability of tenure of
personnel.
13. Initiative.
14. Esprit de corps.
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
Max Weber

Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of
organization (bureaucracy)

Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, technical
competence, and authoritarianism
比較： bureaucracy vs. adhocracy
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WEBER’S IDEAL BUREAUCRACY
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3. QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

Operations Research/ Management Science
to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problems
 improving managerial decision making by applying:

Statistics, optimization models, computer simulations, DSS
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比較：
賭場 (Black Jack, 決勝21點 )，
戰場 (二次大戰），
商場（台糖養豬，號誌連鎖，圓環殺手）
討論：LP, 限制？
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4. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)

actions of people at work

people are the most important asset of an organization

Early OB Advocates:
Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg
Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard
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THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES (E. MAYO)
• A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western
Electric, 1927~1932.
• Experimental findings
 Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working
conditions.
 Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence
individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives.
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討論：
1. Hawthorne Effect
2. Dale Carnegie 的著作 (Human Relation)
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5. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

System Defined: A set of interrelated and interdependent parts
arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.

Subsystem vs. Supra System

Basic Types of Systems
 Closed systems: Are not influenced by and do not interact with
their environment (all system input and output is internal).
 Open systems: Dynamically interact to their environments by
taking in inputs and transforming them into outputs that are
distributed into their environments.
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Environment
System
Inputs
Raw materials
Human resources
Capital
Technology
Information
Transformation
Employee’s work
activities
Management
activities
Technology and
operations methods
Outputs
Products and services
Financial results
Information
Human results
Feedback
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Environment
IMPLICATIONS OF THE SA

Coordination of the organization’s parts is essential for proper
functioning of the entire organization.

Decisions and actions taken in one area of the organization
will have an effect in other areas of the organization.

Organizations are not self-contained and, therefore, must
adapt to changes in their external environment.
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SYSTEM THINKING
補充：
1. General System Theory (K. E. Boulding),
2. Living System (J. G. Miller),
3. System Dynamics (J. W. Forrester)
4. The Limits to Growth (D. H. Meadows)
5. The 5th discipline (P. M. Senge)
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6. THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH

situational approach.

There is no one universally applicable set of management
principles (rules) by which to manage organizations.

Organizations are individually different, face different
situations (contingency variables), and require different ways
of managing.
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POPULAR CONTINGENCY VARIABLES
1. Organization size, 組織規模
2. Routineness of task technology, 技術例行性
3. Environmental uncertainty, 環境不確定性
4. Individual differences, 員工個別差異
5. 其他，如策略……
 組織理論(OT)
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三、CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES
1. Globalization,全球化
2. Ethics, 倫理（職業道德）
3. Workforce Diversity,員工多樣化
4. Entrepreneurship, 創業精神
5. E-business,電子企業
6. Knowledge Management, 知識管理，
Learning Organizations, 學習型組織
7.Quality Management, 品質管理
8.Other
Management is an evolutional discipline.
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1. GLOBALIZATION

Management in international organizations

Political and cultural challenges
Working with people from different cultures
 Coping with anticapitalist backlash
 Movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labor

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2. ETHICS
Increased emphasis on ethics education in college
curriculums
 Increased creation and use of codes of ethics by businesses

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A PROCESS FOR ADDRESSING ETHICAL DILEMMAS
Step 1: What is the ethical dilemma?
Step 2: Who are the affected stakeholders?
Step 3: What personal, organizational, and
external factors are important to
my decision?
Step 4: What are possible alternatives?
Step 5: Make a decision and act on it.
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3. WORKFORCE DIVERSITY

Increasing heterogeneity in the workforce


More gender, minority, ethnic, and other forms of diversity in
employees
Aging workforce

Older employees who work longer and do not retire, increased costs

An increasing demand for products and services related to aging.
討論：Johnny, 關羽，包拯
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4. ENTREPRENEURSHIP

The process of starting new businesses, generally in
response to opportunities.

Entrepreneurship process



Pursuit of opportunities
Innovation in products, services, or business methods
Desire for continual growth
討論：大富創業 (p.620)，其次投資，受僱最穩？
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5. ELECTRONIC BUSINESS

The work preformed by an organization using electronic
linkages to its key constituencies

E-commerce: the sales and marketing aspect of an ebusiness
討論：Amazon.com, 無名小站
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6. LEARNING ORGANIZATION, KM

An organization that has developed the capacity to
continuously learn, adapt, and change.

The cultivation of a learning culture where
organizational members systematically gather and share
knowledge with others in order to achieve better
performance.
討論：玉米田理論，Joe Girard - World's Greatest
Salesperson
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LEARNING ORGANIZATION VS. TRADITIONAL ORG.
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7. QUALITY MANAGEMENT

A philosophy of management driven by continual
improvement in the quality of work processes and
responding to customer needs and expectations

Inspired by the total quality management (TQM)
ideas of Deming and Juran

Quality is not directly related to cost

Poor quality results in lower productivity
討論： The devil is in the details.
W. Shewhart, Edwards Deming
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WHAT IS QUALITY MANAGEMENT?
Intense focus on the customer.
Concern for continual improvement.
Process-focused.
Improvement in the quality of everything.
Accurate measurement.
Empowerment of employees.
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補充: TEAM WORK
1. Case study: a manager’s dilemma (p.57)
2. Thinking critically about ethics (p.77)
3. Internet-based exercise (p.78),
4. Team-based exercise (p.82)
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回 顧
1. 比較：Taylor VS. Fayol 的貢獻
2. 區分：
＊Scientific Management
VS. Management Science
＊Organizational Behavior (OB)
VS. Organization Theory (OT)
＊人群關係運動 VS. 行為科學研究；
＊Systems VS. Contingency Approach
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討論：經史合參學管理？
1. 君王論，戰爭論，國富論。
聖經故事，金字塔，羅馬帝國興亡史，天主教。
2. 論語，孫子，韓非子。
戰國策，楚漢、三國、隋唐演義。
（秦公司興亡史，北宋危機管理）
討論：釋道立身，儒墨處世，孫韓治事。
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TERMS TO KNOW











division of labor
Industrial Revolution
scientific management
therbligs
general administrative
principles of mgt
bureaucracy
quantitative approach
OB
Hawthorne Studies
system











closed systems
open systems
contingency approach
workforce diversity
entrepreneurship
e-business
e-commerce
intranet
learning organization
knowledge mgt
quality management
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