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Absolutism in Western Europe: c. 1589-1715
Constitutionalism in Western Europe: c. 1600-1725
Absolutism in Eastern Europe: c. 1600-1740
AP European History
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Absolutism in Western Europe: c. 1589-1715
Absolutism:
Derived from the traditional assumption of power (e.g. heirs to the throne) and the
belief in “divine right of kings”
Louis XIV of France was the quintessential absolute monarch
Characteristics of western European absolutism
Sovereignty of a country was embodied in the person of the ruler
Absolute monarchs were not subordinate to national assemblies
The nobility was effectively brought under control
This is in contrast to eastern European absolutism where the nobility remained
powerful
The nobility could still at times prevent absolute monarchs from completely having
their way
Bureaucracies in the 17th century were often composed of career officials appointed
by and solely accountable to the king
Often were rising members of the bourgeoisie or the new nobility (“nobility of the
robe” who purchased their titles from the monarchy)
French and Spanish monarchies gained effective control of the Roman Catholic
Church in their countries
Maintained large standing armies
Monarchs no longer relied on mercenary or noble armies as had been the case in the
15th century and earlier
Employed a secret police to weaken political opponents
Foreshadowed totalitarianism in 20th century but lacked financial, technological and
military resources of 20th century dictators (like Stalin & Hitler).
Absolute monarchs usually did not require total mass participation in support of the
monarch’s goals
This is in stark contrast to totalitarian programs such as collectivization in Russia and
the Hitler Youth in Nazi Germany.
Those who did not overtly oppose the state were usually left alone by the government
Philosophy of absolutism
Jean Bodin (1530-96)
Among the first to provide a theoretical basis for absolutist states
Wrote during the chaos of the French Civil Wars of the late 16th century
Believed that only absolutism could provide order and force people to obey the
government
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Leviathan (1651)
Pessimistic view of human beings in a state of nature:
“Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short strong”
Anarchy results
Central drive in every person is power
His ideas became most closely identified with Voltaire in the 18th century:
“Enlightened Despotism”
Hobbes ideas were not very popular in the 17th century
Hobbes did not favor “divine right” of kings, as was favored by Louis XIV in France
and James I and Charles I in England
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Those with constitutional ideas saw Hobbes’ ideas as too authoritarian
Bishop Jacques Bossuet (1627-1704)
Principle advocate of “divine right of kings” in France during the reign of Louis XIV.
Believed “divine right” meant that the king was placed on throne by God, and
therefore owed his authority to no man or group
The development of French Absolutism (c. 1589-1648)
France in the 17th century
In the feudal tradition, French society was divided into three Estates made up of
various classes.
First Estate: clergy; 1% of population
Second Estate: nobility; 3-4% of population
Third Estate: bourgeoisie (middle class), artisans, urban workers, and peasants.
This hierarchy of social orders, based on rank and privilege, was restored under the
reign of Henry IV.
France was primarily agrarian: 90% of population lived in the countryside.
Population of 17 million made France the largest country in Europe (20% of Europe’s
population).
Accounted for France becoming the strongest nation in Europe.
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) (r.1589-1610)
Laid the foundation for France becoming the strongest European power in the 17th
century.
Strengthened the social hierarchy by strengthening government institutions:
parlements, the treasury, universities and the Catholic Church
First king to actively encourage French colonization in the New World: stimulated the
Atlantic trade
First king of the Bourbon dynasty
Came to power in 1589 as part of a political compromise to end the French Civil Wars.
Converted from Calvinism to Catholicism in order to gain recognition from Paris of his
reign.
Issued Edict of Nantes in 1598 providing a degree of religious toleration to the
Huguenots (Calvinists)
Weakening of the nobility
The old “nobility of the sword” not allowed to influence the royal council
Many of the “nobility of the robe”, new nobles who purchased their titles from the
monarchy, became high officials in the government and remained loyal to the king.
Duke of Sully (1560-1641): Finance minister
His reforms enhanced the power of the monarchy
Mercantilism: increased role of the state in the economy in order to achieve a
favorable balance of trade with other countries
Granted monopolies in the production of gunpowder and salt
Encouraged manufacturing of silk and tapestries
Only the government could operate the mines
Reduced royal debt
Systematic bookkeeping and budgets
In contrast, Spain was drowning in debt
Reformed the tax system to make it more equitable and efficient.
Oversaw improved transportation
Began nation-wide highway system
Canals linked major rivers
Began canal to link the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean
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Henry was assassinated in 1610 by a fanatical monk who sought revenge for Henry’s
granting religious protections for the Huguenots.
Led to a severe crisis in power
Henry’s widow, Marie de’ Medici, ruled as regent until their son came of age.
Louis XIII (1610-43)
As a youth, his regency was beset by corruption & mismanagement
Feudal nobles and princes increased their power
Certain nobles convinced him to assume power and exile his mother
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)
Laid foundation for absolutism in France
Like Henry IV, he was a politique (he placed political issues ahead of religious
principles)
Intendant System
Used to weaken the nobility
Replaced local officials with civil servants—intendants—who reported directly to the
king
Intendants were largely middle-class or minor nobles (“nobility of the robe”)
Each of the country’s 32 districts had an intendant responsible for justice, police and
finance
Gov’t became more efficient and centrally controlled
Built upon Sully’s economic achievements in further developing mercantilism
Increased taxation to fund the military
Tax policies were not as successfully as Sully’s
Resorted to old system of selling offices
Tax farmers ruthlessly exploited the peasantry
Richelieu subdued the Huguenots
Peace of Alais (1629): Huguenots lost their fortified cities & Protestant armies
Calvinist aristocratic influenced reduced
Huguenots still allowed to practice Calvinism
Thirty Years’ War
Richelieu and Louis XIII sought to weaken the Hapsburg Empire (a traditional French
policy dating back to Francis I in the early 16th century)
Reversed Maria de’ Medici’s pro-Spanish policy
Declared war against Spain in 1635
France supported Gustavus Adolphus with money during the “Swedish Phase” of the
war
Later, France entered the “International Phase” of the war and ultimately forced the
Treaty of Westphalia on the Hapsburgs
Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) – the “Sun King”
Quintessential absolute ruler in European history
Personified the idea that sovereignty of the state resides in the ruler
“L’ état, c’est moi” (“I am the state”)
He became known as the “Sun King” since he was at the center of French power (just
as the sun is the center of our solar system).
Strong believer in “divine right” of kings (advocated by Bishop Bossuet)
He had the longest reign in European history (72 years)
Inherited the throne when he was 5 years old from his father Louis XIII (Henry IV was
his grandfather)
France became the undisputed major power in Europe during his reign
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French population was the largest in Europe (17 million); accounted for 20% of
Europe’s population
Meant that a massive standing army could be created and maintained
French culture dominated Europe
The French language became the international language in Europe for over two
centuries and the language of the well-educated (as Latin had been during the Middle
Ages)
France became the epicenter of literature and the arts until the 20th century
The Fronde (mid-late 1640s)
Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661) controlled France while Louis XIV was a child
Some nobles revolted against Mazarin when Louis was between the ages of 5 and 11.
Competition among various noble factions enabled Mazarin to defeat the nobles.
Louis never forgot the humiliation he faced at the hands of the nobles early on and
was determined to control the nobility.
Government organization
Louis recruited his chief ministers from the middle class in order to keep the
aristocracy out of government
Continued the intendant system begun by Richelieu
Checked the power of French institutions that might resist his control
Parlements were fearful of resisting him after the failure of the Fronde
Officials who criticized the government could be arrested
Louis never called the Estates General into session
Control over the peasantry (which accounted for about 95% of the population)
Some peasants kept as little as 20% of their cash crops after paying their landlord,
government taxes and tithes to the Church
Corvée: forced labor that required peasants to work for a month out of the year on
roads and other public projects
Idle peasants could be conscripted into the army or forced into workhouses
Rebellious peasants could be executed or used as galley slaves on ships
Versailles Palace
Under Louis XIV, the Palace at Versailles became the grandest and most impressive
palace in all of Europe
The awe-inspiring scale of the palace reinforced his image as the most powerful
absolute ruler in Europe.
The palace had originally been a hunting lodge for his father, Louis XIII.
The Baroque architecture was largely work of Marquis Louvois; the gardens were
designed by LeVau
The façade was about 1/3 of a mile long; 1,400 fountains adorned the grounds
The royal court grew from about 600 people (when the king had lived in Paris) to
about 10,000 people at Versailles
The cost of maintaining Versailles cost about 60% of all royal revenues!
Versailles Palace became in effect a pleasure prison for the French nobility
Louis gained absolute control over the nobility
Fearful of noble intrigue, Louis required nobles to live at the palace for several
months each year in order to keep an eye on them
Nobles were entertained with numerous recreational activities such as tournaments,
hunts and concerts
Elaborate theatrical performances included the works of Racine and Moliere
Religious Policies
Louis considered himself the head of the Gallican Church (French Catholic Church)
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While he was very religious, he did not allow the pope to exercise political power in
the French Church
Edict of Fountainbleau (1685)—revoked Edict of Nantes
Huguenots lost their right to practice Calvinism
About 200,000 Huguenots fled France for England, Holland and the English colonies in
North America
Huguenots later gave major support of the Enlightenment and its ideas of religious
toleration.
Louis supported the Jesuits in cracking down on Jansenists (Catholics who held some
Calvinist ideas)
Mercantilism
State control over a country’s economy in order to achieve a favorable balance of
trade with other countries.
Bullionism: a nation’s policy of accumulating as much precious metal (gold and silver)
as possible while preventing its outward flow to other countries.
French mercantilism reached its height under Louis’ finance minister, Jean Baptiste
Colbert (1661-83)
Colbert’s goal: economic self-sufficiency for France
Oversaw the construction of roads & canals
Granted gov’t-supported monopolies in certain industries.
Cracked down on guilds
Reduced local tolls (internal tariffs) that inhibited trade
Organized French trading companies for international trade (East India Co., West
India Co.)
By 1683, France was Europe’s leading industrial country
Excelled in such industries as textiles, mirrors, lace-making and foundries for steel
manufacturing and firearms.
Colbert’s most important accomplishment: developing the merchant marine
Weaknesses of mercantilism and the French economy
Poor peasant conditions (esp. taxation) resulted in large emigration out of France
Louis opted for creating a massive army instead of a formidable navy
Result: France later lost naval wars with England
War in later years of Louis’ reign nullified Colbert’s gains
Louis was at war for 2/3 of his reign
Wars of Louis XIV
Overview
Wars were initially successful but eventually became economically ruinous to France
France developed the professional modern army
Perhaps the first time in modern European history that one country was able to
dominate politics
A balance of power system emerged
No one country would be allowed to dominate the continent since a coalition of other
countries would rally against a threatening power.
Dutch stadholder William of Orange (later King William III of England) was the most
important figure in thwarting Louis’ expansionism
War of Devolution (First Dutch War), 1667-68
Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) without declaring war.
Louis received 12 fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands but gave
up the Franche-Comté (Burgundy)
Second Dutch War (1672-78)
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Louis invaded the southern Netherlands as revenge for Dutch opposition in the
previous war.
Peace of Nijmegan (1678-79)
Represented the furthest limit to the expansion of Louis XIV.
France took Franche-Comté from Spain, gained some Flemish towns and took Alsace
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97)
In response to another invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV in 1683, the
League of Augsburg formed in 1686: HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch
Republic
Demonstrated emergence of balance of power
William of Orange (now king of England) brought England in against France.
Began a period of Anglo-French military rivalry that lasted until Napoleon’s defeat in
1815.
War ended with the status quo prior to the war
France remained in control of Alsace and the city of Strasbourg (in Lorraine).
War of Spanish Succession (1701-13)
Cause: The will of Charles II (Hapsburg king) gave all Spanish territories to the
grandson of Louis XIV
European powers feared that Louis would consolidate the thrones of France and
Spain, thus creating a monster power that would upset the balance of power
Grand Alliance emerged in opposition to France: England, Dutch Republic, HRE,
Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy
Battle of Blenheim (1704)
A turning point in the war that began a series of military defeats for France
England’s army, led by the Duke of Marlborough (John Churchill—ancestor of the 20th
century leader Winston Churchill) and military forces of Savoy (representing the HRE)
were victorious
Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Most important treaty between the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of
Paris (1763)
Maintained the balance of power in Europe
Ended the expansionism of Louis XIV
Spanish possessions were partitioned
Britain was the biggest winner
Gained the asiento (slave trade) from Spain and the right to send one English ship to
trade in Spain’s New World empire
Gained the Spanish territories of Gibraltar and Minorca.
Belgium (Spanish Netherlands) given to Austria
Netherlands gain some land as a buffer against future French aggression
Though Louis’ grandson was enthroned in Spain, the unification of the Spanish and
Bourbon dynasties was prohibited.
Kings were recognized as such in Sardinia (Savoy) and Prussia (Brandenburg)
Costs of Louis XIV’s wars:
Destroyed the French economy
20% of the French subjects died
Huge debt would be placed on the shoulders of the Third Estate
French gov’t was bankrupt
Financial and social tensions would sow the seeds of the French Revolution later in
the century.
The Spanish Empire in the 17th Century
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“The Golden Age of Spain” in the 16th century
The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella began the process of centralizing power (“New
Monarchs”).
The foundation for absolutism in Spain was laid by Charles V (1519-1556) and Phillip II
Spain’s power reached its zenith under Philip II (r.1556-1598)
Madrid (in Castile) became the capital of Spain
Built the Escorial Palace to demonstrate his power
A command economy developed in Madrid
Numerous rituals of court etiquette reinforced the king’s power
The Spanish Inquisition continued to persecute those seen as heretics (especially
Jews and Moors)
Decline of the Spanish economy in the 17th century
The Spanish economy was hurt by the loss of the middle class Moors and Jews
Population of Spain shrank from 7.5 million in 1550 to 5.5 million in 1660.
Spanish trade with its colonies fell 60% between 1610 and 1660
Largely due to English and Dutch competition.
The Spanish treasury was bankrupt and had to repudiate its debts at various times
between 1594 and 1680.
National taxes hit the peasantry particularly hard
Many peasants were driven from the countryside and swelled the ranks of the poor in
cities.
Food production decreased as a result
Inflation from the “price revolution” hurt domestic industries that were unable to
export goods.
A poor work ethic stunted economic growth
Upper classes eschewed work and continued a life of luxury.
Many noble titles were purchased; provided tax exemptions for the wealthy
Capitalism was not really prevalent (as it was in the Netherlands and England)
Political and military decline
Symbolically, England’s defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 is seen by some
historians as the beginning of the decline of the Spanish empire.
However, Spain had the most formidable military until the mid-17th century.
Poor leadership by three successive kings in the 17th century damaged Spain’s
political power
Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II (one of worst rulers in Hapsburg history)
Spain’s defeat in Thirty Years’ War was politically and economically disastrous
Spain officially lost the Netherlands
1640, Portugal reestablished its independence.
Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659): marked end of Spain as a Great Power
War between Spain and France continued for 11 years after the end of the Thirty
Years’ War
Spain lost parts of the Spanish Netherlands and territory in northern Spain to France
By 1700, the Spanish navy had only 8 ships and most of its army consisted of
foreigners.
The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713) resulted in Spain losing most of its
European possessions at the Treaty of Utrecht
The Baroque
Reflected the age of absolutism
Began in Catholic Reformation countries to teach in a concrete and emotional way
and demonstrate the glory and power of the Catholic Church
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Encouraged by the papacy and the Jesuits
Prominent in France, Flanders, Austria, southern Germany and Poland
Spread later to Protestant countries such as the Netherlands and northern Germany
and England
Characteristics
Sought to overwhelm the viewer: Emphasized grandeur, emotion, movement,
spaciousness and unity surrounding a certain theme
Versailles Palace typifies baroque architecture: huge frescoes unified around the
emotional impact of a single theme.
Architecture and sculpture
Baroque architecture reflected the image and power of absolute monarchs and the
Catholic Church
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1650) personified baroque architecture and sculpture
Colonnade for the piazza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome was his greatest
architectural achievement.
He sculpted the incredible canopy over the high altar of St. Peter’s Cathedral
His altarpiece sculpture, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, evokes tremendous emotion
His statue of David shows movement and emotion
Constructed several fountains throughout Rome
Versailles Palace built during the reign of Louis XIV is the quintessential baroque
structure
Hapsburg emperor Leopold I built Schönbrunn in Austria in response to the Versailles
Palace
Peter the Great in Russia built the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg largely on the
influence of Versailles
Frederick I in Prussia began building his palace in Berlin in 1701
Baroque painting
Characteristics
Strong sense of emotion and movement
Stressed broad areas of light and shadow rather than on linear arrangements of the
High Renaissance.
Tenebrism (“dark manner”): extreme contrast between dark to light
Color was an important element as it appealed to the senses and more true to nature.
Not concerned with clarity of detail as with overall dynamic effect.
Designed to give a spontaneous personal experience.
Caravaggio (1571-1610), Italian painter (Rome)
Perhaps 1st important painter of the Baroque era
Depicted highly emotional scenes
Sharp contrasts of light and dark to create drama.
Criticized by some for using ordinary people as models for his depictions of Biblical
scenes
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), Flemish painter
Worked much for the Hapsburg court in Brussels (the capital of the Spanish
Netherlands)
Emphasized color and sensuality; animated figures and melodramatic contrasts;
monumental size.
Nearly half of his works dealt with Christian subjects.
Known for his sensual nudes as Roman goddesses, water nymphs, and saints and
angels.
Diego Velázquez (1599-1660)
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Perhaps the greatest court painter of the era
Numerous portraits of the Spanish court and their surroundings
Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1652)
Famous for vivid depictions of dramatic scenes and her “Judith” paintings
The Dutch Style
Characteristics
Did not fit the Baroque style of trying to overwhelm the viewer
Reflected the Dutch Republic’s wealth and religious toleration of secular subjects
Reflected the urban and rural settings of Dutch life during the “Golden Age of the
Netherlands”
Many works were commissioned by merchants or government organizations
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669), painter
Perhaps the greatest of all Baroque artists although he doesn’t fit neatly into any
category.
Scenes covered an enormous range throughout his career
Used extremes of light and dark in the Baroque style: tenebrism
His works were far more intimate and psychological than typical Baroque works
Painted with the restraint of the classicist style
Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)
Paintings specialized in simple domestic interior scenes of ordinary people
Like Rembrandt, he was a master in the use of light
Frans Hals (1580-1666)
Portraits of middle-class people and militia companies
French Classicism
Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), painter
Paintings rationally organized to achieve harmony and balance; even his landscapes
are orderly.
Focused early on classical scenes from antiquity or Biblical scenes.
Later focused on landscape painting
His style is not typical baroque
Painted temporarily in the court of Louis XIII.
Jean Racine (1639-1699), dramatist
His plays (along with Moliere’s) were often funded by Louis XIV
Plays were written in the classical style (e.g. adherence to the three unities)
Wrote some of the most intense emotional works for the stage.
Jean-Baptiste Moliere (1622-1673), dramatist
His plays often focused on social struggles
Made fun of the aristocracy, upper bourgeoisie and high church officials
Baroque Music
Characteristics
Belief that the text should dominate the music; the lyrics and libretto were most
important
Baroque composers developed the modern system of major-minor tonalities.
Dissonance was used much more freely than during the Renaissance
Claudio Monteverdi (1547-1643) developed the opera and the modern orchestra
Orfeo (1607) is his masterpiece—the first opera
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
Like Bach, wrote in a variety of genres
His masterpiece is the oratorio The Messiah
J. S. Bach (1685-1750)
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Greatest of the baroque composers
Often wrote dense and polyphonic structures (in contrast to the later balance and
restraint of the Classical Period—Mozart & Haydn)
Wrote in a variety of genres, both choral and instrumental, for a variety of
instruments
e.g. masses, organ works, concertos
Extremely prolific
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Constitutionalism in Western Europe: c. 1600-1725
Constitutionalism: Government power is limited by law. There is a delicate balance
between the power of government and the rights and liberties of individuals.
English society in the 17th century
Capitalism played a major role in the high degree of social mobility
The Commercial Revolution significantly increased the size of the English middle-class
Improved agricultural techniques improved farming and husbandry
The size of the middle-class became proportionately larger than any country in
Europe, with the exception of the Netherlands.
Gentry
Wealthy landowners in the countryside who dominated politics in the House of
Commons (England’s lower house in Parliament)
Many of the gentry had been commercially successful and had moved up from the
middle-class into the upper-class
Relied heavily on legal precedent to limit the power of the king on economic and
political matters
Were willing to pay taxes so long as the House of Commons had a say in national
expenditures
Unlike France, there was no stigma to paying taxes in England.
Since the tax burden was more equitable in England, the peasantry was not as heavily
exploited.
The issue of taxation brought the House of Commons and the monarchy into direct
conflict
Religion
Calvinists comprised perhaps the largest percentage of the population by the early
17th century while the Anglican Church lost ground
Puritans (the most reform-minded of the Calvinists) sought to “purify” the Church of
England by removing many of its Catholic elements
The “Protestant work ethic” profoundly impacted members of the middle-class and
gentry.
Calvinists in particular were highly opposed to any influence by the Catholic Church
(while James I and Charles I seemed to be sympathetic to Catholicism)
Problems facing English monarchs in the 17th century
The Stuarts ruled England for most of the 17th century
Although they exhibited absolutist tendencies, they were restrained by the growth of
Parliament.
They lacked the political astuteness of Elizabeth I.
James I (1603-1625): first of the Stuart kings—struggled with Parliament
Charles I (1625-1629): twice suspended Parliament; beheaded during the English Civil
War
Charles II (1660 -1685): restored to the throne but with the consent of Parliament
James II (1685-1688): exiled to France during the “Glorious Revolution”
Two major issues prior to the Civil War:
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Could the king govern without the consent of Parliament or go against the wishes of
Parliament?
Would the form of the Anglican Church follow the established hierarchical episcopal
form or acquire a Presbyterian form?
Episcopal form meant king, Archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops of church
determined Church doctrine and practices (used in England).
Presbyterian form allowed more freedom of conscience and dissent among church
members (used in Scotland).
James I (r. 1603-1625)
Background
Elizabeth I left no heir to the throne when she died in 1603
James VI of Scotland was next in line to assume the throne; thus England got a
Scottish king
James believed in “divine right” of kings
Claimed “No bishop; no king” in response to Calvinists who wanted to eliminate
system of bishops in the Church of England.
Firm believer in absolutism (such as that seen by his contemporaries in France, Henry
IV and later, Louis XIII)
Twice dissolved Parliament over issues of taxation and parliamentary demands for
free speech.
Elizabeth I left behind a large debt
A series of wars (including the 30 Years’ War) were costly and required large gov’t
revenues
James unwisely flaunted his wealth (not to mention his male lovers) and thus
damaged the prestige of the monarchy.
Charles I (r. 1625-1649)
Background
Son of James I
Like James, he claimed “divine right” theory of absolute authority for himself as king
and sought to rule without Parliament
Also sought to control the Church of England.
Tax issues pitted Charles I against Parliament
Charles needed money to fight wars
To save money, soldiers were quartered in English homes during wartime (this was
very unpopular)
Some English nobles were arrested for refusing to lend money to the government
By 1628, both houses of Parliament were firmly opposed to the king
Petition of Right (1628)
Parliament attempted to encourage the king to grant basic legal rights in return for
granting tax increases
Provisions:
Only Parliament had right to levy taxes, gifts, loans, or contributions.
No one should be imprisoned or detained without due process of law.
All had right to habeas corpus (trial)
No forced quartering of soldiers in homes of private citizens.
Martial law could not be declared in peacetime.
Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629
Parliament had continued to refuse increased taxation without its consent
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Parliament also had demanded that any movement of the gov’t toward Catholicism
and Arminianism (rejection of Church authority based on “liberty of conscience”) be
treated as treason.
Charles’ rule without Parliament between 1629 and 1640 became known as the
“Thorough”
In effect, Charles ruled as an absolute monarch during these 11 years
He raised money using Medieval forms of forced taxation (those with a certain amount
of wealth were obligated to pay)
“Ship money”: all counties now required to pay to outfit ships where before only
coastal communities had paid.
Religious persecution of Puritans became the biggest reason for the English Civil War.
The “Short Parliament”, 1640
A Scottish military revolt in 1639-40 occurred when Charles attempted to impose the
English Prayer Book on the Scottish Presbyterian church
The Scots remained loyal to the Crown despite the revolt over religious doctrine
Charles I needed new taxes to fight the war against Scotland
Parliament was re-convened in 1640 but refused to grant Charles his new taxes if he
did not accept the rights outlined in the Petition of Right and grant church reforms
Charles disbanded Parliament after only a month
“Long Parliament” (1640-1648)
Desperate for money after the Scottish invasion of northern England in 1640, Charles
finally agreed to certain demands by Parliament.
Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent
Parliament had to meet a minimum of once every three years
“Ship money” was abolished
The leaders of the persecution of Puritans were to be tried and executed (including
Archbishop Laud)
The Star Chamber (still used to suppress nobles) was abolished
Common law courts were supreme to the king’s courts.
Refused funds to raise an army to defeat the Irish revolt
The Puritans came to represent the majority in Parliament against the king’s Anglican
supporters
The English Civil War
Immediate cause
Charles tried to arrest several Puritans in Parliament but a crowd of 4,000 came to
Parliament’s defense
Charles did this because an Irish rebellion broke out and Parliament was not willing to
give the king an army.
In March 1642 Charles declared war against his opponents in Parliament
His army came from the nobility, rural country gentry, and mercenaries.
Civil War resulted:
Cavaliers supported the king
Clergy and supporters of the Anglican Church
Majority of the old gentry (nobility); north and west
Eventually, Irish Catholics (who feared Puritanism more than Anglicanism)
Roundheads (Calvinists) opposed the king
Consisted largely of Puritans (Congregationalists) and Presbyterians (who favored the
Scottish church organization)
Allied with Scotland (in return for guarantees that Presbyterianism would be imposed
on England after the war)
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Supported by Presbyterian-dominated London
Comprised a majority of businessmen
Included some nobles in the south and east
Had the support of the navy and the merchant marine
Oliver Cromwell, a fiercely Puritan Independent and military leader of the
Roundheads, eventually led his New Model Army to victory in 1649
Battle of Nasby was the final major battle.
Charles surrendered himself to the Scots in 1646
A division between Puritans and Presbyterians (and non-Puritans) developed late in
the war.
Parliament ordered the army to disband; Cromwell refused.
Cromwell successfully thwarted a Scottish invasion (Charles I had promised Scotland a
Presbyterian system if they would help defeat Cromwell)
Pride’s Purge (1648): Elements of the New Model Army (without Cromwell’s
knowledge) removed all non-Puritans and Presbyterians from Parliament leaving a
“Rump Parliament” with only 1/5 of members remaining.
Charles I was beheaded in 1649
This effectively ended the civil war
First king in European history to be executed by his own subjects
New sects emerged
Levellers: Radical religious revolutionaries; sought social & political reforms—a more
egalitarian society
Diggers: denied Parliament’s authority and rejected private ownership of land
Quakers: believed in an “inner light”, a divine spark that existed in each person
Rejected church authority
Pacifists
Allowed women to play a role in preaching
The Interregnum under Oliver Cromwell
The Interregnum: 1649-1660 rule without king
The Commonwealth (1649-1653): a republic that abolished the monarchy and the
House of Lords
In reality, became a military state with an army of 44,000 (the best in Europe)
Scottish Presbyterians, who opposed Puritan rule, proclaimed Charles II as the new
king and Cromwell once again defeated a Scottish invasion
The Protectorate (1653-1659), Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector (in effect, a
dictatorship)
Dissolved the “Rump Parliament” in 1653 after a series of disputes
England divided into 12 districts, each under the control of a military general
Denied religious freedom to Anglicans and Catholics
Allowed Jews to return to England in 1655 (Jews had not been allowed since 1290)
Cromwell’s military campaigns
1649, Cromwell invaded Ireland to put down an Irish uprising.
Act of Settlement (1652): The land from 2/3 of Catholic property owners was given to
Protestant English colonists.
Cromwell conquered Scotland in 1651-52
The Puritan-controlled gov’t sought to regulate the moral life of England by
commanding that people follow strict moral codes that were enforced by the army.
The press was heavily censored, sports were prohibited, theaters were closed
This seriously alienated many English people from Cromwell’s military rule
Cromwell died in 1658 and his son, Richard, was ineffective as his successor.
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The Stuarts under Charles II were restored to the throne in 1660.
The Restoration under Charles II and James II
A Cavalier Parliament restored Charles II (r. 1660-1685) to the throne in 1660.
While in exile, Charles had agreed to abide by Parliament’s decisions in the post-war
settlement
Parliament was stronger in relation to the king than ever before in England
The king’s power was not absolute
Charles agreed to a significant degree of religious toleration, especially for Catholics
to whom he was partial
He was known as the “Merry Monarch” for his affable personality
Development of political parties
Tories
Nobles, gentry and Anglicans who supported the monarchy over Parliament
Essentially conservative
Whigs
Middle-class and Puritans who favored Parliament and religious toleration
More liberal in the classical sense
The Clarendon Code
Instituted in 1661 by monarchists and Anglicans
Sought to drive all Puritans out of both political and religious life
Test Act of 1673 excluded those unwilling to receive the sacrament of the Church of
England from voting, holding office, preaching, teaching, attending universities, or
assembling for meetings.
Charles seemed to support Catholicism and drew criticism from Whigs in Parliament
Granted freedom of worship to Catholics
Made a deal with Louis XIV in 1670 whereby France would give England money each
year in exchange for Charles relaxing restrictions on Catholics
Charles dissolved Parliament when it passed a law denying royal succession to
Catholics (Charles’ brother, James, was Catholic)
He declared himself a Catholic on his deathbed
Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679
Whig Parliament sought to limit Charles’ power
Provisions:
Enabled judges to demand that prisoners be in court during their trials.
Required just cause for continued imprisonment.
Provided for speedy trials.
Forbade double jeopardy (being charged for a crime of which one had already been
acquitted)
Charles took control of Scotland
Scotland again gained its independence when Charles II assumed the throne in 1660.
Charles reneged on his 1651 pledge that acknowledged Presbyterianism in Scotland
and in 1661 declared himself the head of the Church of Scotland
He sought to impose the episcopal form of church hierarchy in Scotland, similar to the
Anglican Church.
Thousands were killed in Scotland for resisting Charles’ dictatorship
Last few years of Charles’ reign in Scotland was known as the “Killing Time”
James II (r. 1685-88)
Inherited the throne at age 55 from his brother, Charles II.
He sought to return England to Catholicism
Appointed many Catholics to high positions in gov’t and in colleges
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The Glorious Revolution, 1688
The Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 was the final act in the struggle for political
sovereignty in England.
Parliament not willing to sacrifice constitutional gains of the English Civil War and
return to absolute monarchy.
Two issues in particular drove Parliament to action:
James’s reissue of Declaration of Indulgence (granting freedom of worship to
Catholics) and his demand that the declaration be read in the Anglican Church on two
successive Sundays
Birth of a Catholic heir to the English throne in 1688
James II was forced to abdicate his throne
James’ daughters, Mary and Anne, were Protestants
Parliament invited Mary’s husband, the Dutch stadholder William of Orange, to
assume the throne.
William agreed only if he had popular support in England and could have his Dutch
troops accompany him.
William thus prepared to invade England from Holland.
In late 1688, James fled to France after his offers for concessions to Parliament were
refused.
William and Mary were declared joint sovereigns by Parliament.
The Bill of Rights (1689)
William and Mary accepted what became known as the “Bill of Rights”.
England became a constitutional monarchy
This became the hallmark for constitutionalism in Europe
The Petition of Right (1628), Habeas Corpus Act (1679), and the Bill of Rights (1689)
are all part of the English Constitution.
Provisions
King could not be Roman Catholic.
Laws could be made only with the consent of Parliament.
Parliament had right of free speech.
Standing army in peace time was not legal without Parliamentary approval.
Taxation was illegal without Parliamentary approval.
Excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishments were prohibited.
Right to trial by jury, due process of law, and reasonable bail was guaranteed.
People had the right to bear arms (Protestants but not Catholics)
Provided for free elections to Parliament and it could be dissolved only by its own
consent.
People had right of petition.
The “Glorious Revolution” did not amount to a democratic revolution
Power remained largely in the hands of the nobility and gentry until at least the mid19th century
Parliament essentially represented the upper classes
The majority of English people did not have a say in political affairs
The most notable defense of the “Glorious Revolution” came from political
philosopher John Locke in his Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)
He stated that the people create a government to protect their “natural rights” of
life, liberty and property
Toleration Act of 1689
Granted right to worship for Protestant non-conformists (e.g. Puritans, Quakers)
although they could not hold office.
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Did not extend religious liberties to Catholics, Jews or Unitarians (although they were
largely left alone)
Act of Settlement, 1701
If King William, or his sister-in-law, Anne, died without children, the Crown would
pass to the granddaughter of James I, the Hanoverian electress dowager, or to her
Protestant heirs.
The Stuarts were no longer in the line of succession
When Anne died in 1714, her Hanoverian heir assumed the throne as George I.
Act of Union, 1707
United England and Scotland into Great Britain
Why would Scotland agree to give up its independence?
The Scots desperately desired access to England’s trade empire and believed that it
would continue to fall behind if it did not enter into a union.
Scottish Presbyterians feared that the Stuarts (who were now staunchly Catholic)
might attempt to return to the throne in Scotland.
Within a few decades, Scotland transformed into a modern society with dynamic
economic and intellectual growth
The Cabinet system in the 18th century
Structure:
Leading ministers, who were members of the House of Commons and had the support
of the majority of its members, made common policy and conducted the business of
the country.
The Prime Minister, a member of the majority, was the leader of the government
Robert Walpole is viewed as the first Prime Minister in British history (although the
title of Prime Minister was not yet official)
Led the cabinet from 1721-1742
Established the precedent that the cabinet was responsible to the House of Commons
The King’s role
George I (1714-1727), the first of the Hanoverian kings, normally presided at cabinet
meetings.
George II (1727-1760) discontinued the practice of meeting with the cabinet.
Both kings did not speak English fluently and seemed more concerned with their
territory in Hanover.
Decision making of the crown declined as a result.
The United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic)
1st half of the 17th century was the “golden age” of the Netherlands
The government was dominated by the bourgeoisie whose wealth and power limited
the power of the state
Government was run by representative institutions
The government consisted of an organized confederation of seven provinces, each
with representative gov’t
Each province sent a representative to the Estates General
Holland and Zeeland were the two richest and most influential provinces
Each province and city was autonomous (self-governing)
Each province elected a stadholder (governor) and military leader
During times of crisis, all seven provinces would elect the same stadholder, usually
from the House of Orange
The Dutch Republic was characterized by religious toleration
Calvinism was the dominant religion but was split between the Dutch Reformed (who
were the majority and the most powerful) and Arminian factions
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Arminianism: Calvinism without the belief in predestination
Arminians enjoyed full rights after 1632
Consisted of much of the merchant class
Catholics and Jews also enjoyed religious toleration but had fewer rights.
Religious toleration enabled the Netherlands to foster a cosmopolitan society that
promoted trade
The Netherlands became the greatest mercantile nation of the 17th century
Amsterdam became the banking and commercial center of Europe
Replaced Antwerp that had dominated in the late-16th century
Richest city in Europe with a population of over 100,000
Offered far lower interest rates than English banks; this was the major reason for its
banking dominance
Had to rely on commerce since it had few national resources
The Dutch had the largest fleet in the world dedicated to trade
Had several outstanding ports that became a hub of European trade
Did not have government controls and monopolies that interfered with free
enterprise
Fishing was the cornerstone of the Dutch economy
Major industries included textiles, furniture, fine woolen goods, sugar refining,
tobacco cutting, brewing, pottery, glass, printing, paper making, weapons
manufacturing and ship building
Dutch East India Company and Dutch West India Company organized as cooperative
ventures of private enterprise and the state
DEIC challenged the Portuguese in East including South Africa, Sri Lanka, and parts of
Indonesia.
DWIC traded extensively with Latin American and Africa
Foreign policy
Dutch participation against the Hapsburgs in the Thirty Years’ War led to its
recognition as an independent country, free from Spanish influence
War with England and France in the 1670s damaged the United Provinces
Dikes in Holland were opened in 1672 and much of the region was flooded in order to
prevent the French army from taking Amsterdam.
By the end of the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, the Dutch Republic saw a
significant economic decline
Britain and France were now the two dominant powers in the Atlantic trade.
Sweden
King Gustavus Adolphus (r. 1611-32) reorganized the gov’t
The Baltic region came under Swedish domination and Sweden became a world power
The Riksdag, an assembly of nobles, clergy, townsmen, and peasants, supposedly had
the highest legislative authority.
The real power rested with the monarchy and nobility
Nobles had the dominant role in the bureaucracy and the military
The central gov’t was divided into 5 departments, each controlled by a noble
Sweden focused on trade rather than building up a huge military (too costly)
Holy Roman Empire (HRE): religious divisions due to the Reformation and religious
wars in 16th and 17th centuries split Germany among Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist
princes
Ottoman Empire: could not maintain possessions in eastern Europe and the Balkans in
the face of Austrian and Russian expansion
Ottoman Empire was built on expansion
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The Sultan had absolute power in the empire
After 1560 the decline in western expansion resulted in the gradual disintegration of
the empire
Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) was perhaps the most powerful ruler in the
world during the 16th century
Nearly conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade (Serbia), nearly 1/2 of eastern
Europe including all Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and part of southern Russia.
Highly talented Christian children from the conquered provinces were incorporated
into the Ottoman Empire’s bureaucracy
“Janissary corps”: those Christian slaves who were not selected for the Ottoman
bureaucracy served loyally instead in the Turkish army
Ottoman Empire was fairly tolerant regarding religion in its conquered provinces
Poland: liberum veto – voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous for changes to
be made; thus, little could be done to systematically strengthen the kingdom
Russia and Prussia encouraged certain members to invoke the liberum veto to weaken
Poland.
By 1800, Poland ceased to exist as a sovereign state; carved up by Russia, Austria and
Prussia (partition)
Eastern European absolutism differed from French absolutism
Eastern absolutism was based on a powerful nobility, weak middle class, and an
oppressed peasantry composed of serfs.
In France, the nobility’s power had been limited, the middle-class was relatively
strong, and peasants were generally free from serfdom.
Louis XIV built French absolutism upon the foundations of a well-developed medieval
monarchy and a strong royal bureaucracy.
Threat of war with European and Asian invaders were important motivations for
eastern European monarchs’ drive to consolidate power.
Resulted in reduced political power of the nobility.
However, nobles gained much greater power over the peasantry.
Three important methods of gaining absolute power:
Kings imposed and collected permanent taxes without the consent of their subjects.
States maintained permanent standing armies.
States conducted relations with other states as they pleased.
Absolutism in eastern Europe reached its height with Peter the Great of Russia.
Absolutism in Prussia was stronger than in Austria.
Serfdom in eastern Europe
After 1300, lords in eastern Europe revived serfdom to combat increasing economic
challenges.
Areas most affected included Bohemia, Silesia, Hungary, eastern Germany, Poland,
Lithuania, and Russia.
Drop in population in the 14th century (especially from the “Black Death”) created
tremendous labor shortages and hard times for nobles.
Lords demanded that their kings and princes issue laws restricting or eliminating
peasants’ right of moving freely
By 1500 Prussian territories had laws requiring runaway peasants to be hunted down
and returned to their lords
Laws were passed that froze peasants in their social class.
Lords confiscated peasant lands and imposed heavier labor obligations.
The legal system was monopolized by the local lord.
Non-serf peasants were also affected
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Robot: In certain regions, peasants were required to work 3-4 days without pay per
week for their local lord
Serfdom consolidated between 1500 and 1650
Hereditary serfdom was re-established in Poland, Russia, and Prussia by the mid-17th
century.
In Poland, nobles gained complete control over peasants in 1574 and could legally
impose death penalties on serfs whenever they wished.
1694, the Russian tsar rescinded a 9-year term limit on recovery of runaway serfs.
This period saw growth of estate agriculture, especially in Poland and eastern
Germany.
Food prices increased due to influx of gold & silver from the Americas.
Surpluses in wheat and timber were sold to big foreign merchants who exported them
to feed the wealthier west.
Why serfdom in eastern Europe and not western Europe?
Reasons were not necessarily economic.
West was also devastated by the Black Death and the resulting labor shortages helped
labor.
Political reasons more plausible – supremacy of noble landlords.
Most kings, in fact, were essentially “first among equals” in the noble class and
directly benefited from serfdom.
Eastern lords had more political power than in the west; monarchs needed the nobles
Constant warfare in eastern Europe and political chaos resulted in noble landlord
class increasing their political power at the expense of monarchs.
Weak eastern kings had little power to control landlord policies aimed at peasants.
Strong sovereign kings were not in place prior to 1650.
Peasants were weaker politically than in the west.
Uprisings did not succeed.
Peasant solidarity in the east was weaker than western communities.
Landlords undermined medieval privileges of towns and power of urban classes.
Population of towns and importance of urban middle classes declined significantly.
The Hapsburg Empire (Austrian Empire)
Rise of Austria
Ruler of Austria was traditionally selected as Holy Roman Emperor
After War of Spanish Succession (1701-13) and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), the
Spanish throne was now occupied by the Bourbons; Habsburg power was concentrated
in Austria.
Austrian Habsburg Empire included:
Naples, Sardinia, and Milan in Italy
Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)
Hungary and Transylvania (modern-day Romania)
Ineffective Habsburg rule in the HRE forced monarchs to turn their attention inward
and eastward to consolidate their diverse holdings into a strong unified state.
Reorganization of Bohemia was a major step towards absolutism.
Czech (Bohemian) nobility was wiped out during the Bohemian phase of 30 Years’ War
Ferdinand II (1619-1637) redistributed Czech lands to aristocratic soldiers from all
over Europe.
Conditions for serfs declined.
Old hereditary provinces of Austria proper were centralized by Ferdinand III (16371657).
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Ferdinand created a permanent standing army; unprecedented for the Hapsburg
empire
Hungary was the third and largest part of its dominion.
Magyars were the dominant cultural group
Serfdom intensified in Hapsburg lands
Government of the Austrian Empire.
Austria was NOT a national state – its multinational empire included:
Austria proper: Germans, Italians
Bohemia: Czechs
Hungary: Hungarians, Serbs, Croats, Romanians
No single constitutional system or administration existed in the empire as each region
had a different legal relationship to the Emperor.
Important Hapsburg rulers
Ferdinand II (1619-1637) took control of Bohemia during the 30 Years’ War
Ferdinand III (1637-1657): centralized gov’t in the old hereditary provinces of Austria
proper.
Leopold I (1658-1705)
Severely restricted Protestant worship
Siege of Vienna: Successfully repelled Turks from gates of Vienna in 1683
Last attempt by the Ottoman Empire to take central Europe.
In 1697, Prince Eugene of Savoy led Austria’s forces to a victory over the Ottoman’s
at Zenta, thus securing Austria from future Ottoman attacks
Emperor Charles VI (1711-1740)
Austria was saved from French expansion during the War of Spanish Succession with
its alliance with Britain and the military leadership of Prince Eugene.
Issued Pragmatic Sanction in 1713
Hapsburg possessions were never to be divided and henceforth to be passed intact to
a single heir.
His daughter, Maria Theresa, inherited Charles’ empire in 1740 and ruled for 40 years
Prussia: House of Hohenzollern
Brief background of Brandenburg
Ruler of Brandenburg was designated as one of 7 electors in the Holy Roman Empire
in 1417.
Yet by the 17th century, Brandenburg was not significantly involved in HRE affairs
Marriages increasingly gave the Hohenzollerns control of German principalities in
central and western Germany.
The prince had little power over the nobility
Frederick William, the “Great Elector” (r. 1640-88)
Background
Strict Calvinist but granted religious toleration to Catholics and Jews
Admired the Swedish system of government and the economic power of the
Netherlands
Ongoing struggle between Sweden and Poland for control of Baltic after 1648 and
wars of Louis XIV created atmosphere of permanent crisis.
Prussia was invaded in 1656-57 by Tartars of southern Russia who killed or carried off
as slaves more than 50,000 people.
Invasion weakened the noble Estates and strengthened the urgency of the elector’s
demands for more money for a larger army.
Prussian nobles refused to join representatives of towns in resisting royal power
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The “Great Elector” established Prussia as a Great Power and laid the foundation for
the future unification of Germany in the 19th century
Most significant: Oversaw Prussian militarism & created the most efficient army in
Europe.
Employed military power and taxation to unify his Rhine holdings, Prussia, and
Brandenburg into a strong state.
Increased military spending achieved through heavy taxes (twice that of Louis XIV in
France)
Prussian nobility not exempted.
Soldiers also served as tax collectors and policemen, thus expanding the
government’s bureaucracy.
“Junkers” formed the backbone of the Prussian military officer corps; these nobles
and landowners dominated the Estates of Brandenburg and Prussia.
1653, hereditary subjugation of serfs established as a way of compensating the nobles
for their support of the Crown
Encouraged industry and trade
Imported skilled craftsmen and Dutch farmers
New industries emerged: Woolens, cotton, linens, velvet, lace, silk, soap, paper and
iron products
Efforts at overseas trade largely failed due to Prussia’s lack of ports and naval
experience
Frederick I (Elector Frederick III) “The Ostentatious” (1688-1713); 1st “King of
Prussia”
Most popular of Hohenzollern kings
Sought to imitate the court of Louis XIV
Encouraged higher education
Founded a university and encouraged the founding of an academy of science
Welcomed immigrant scholars
Fought in two wars against Louis XIV to preserve the European balance of power:
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-97) and the War of Spanish Succession (17011713)
Allied with the Hapsburgs
Elector of Brandenburg/Prussia was now recognized internationally as the “King of
Prussia” in return for aid to Habsburgs.
Thus, Frederick I was the first “king of Prussia”
Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740) “Soldiers’ King”
Most important Hohenzollern regarding the development of Prussian absolutism
Calvinist, like his father
Obsessed with finding tall soldiers for his army
Infused militarism into all of Prussian society
Prussia became known as “Sparta of the North”
One notable diplomat said, "Prussia, is not a state with an army, but an army with a
state.”
Society became rigid and highly disciplined.
Unquestioning obedience was the highest virtue.
Most militaristic society of modern times.
Nearly doubled the size of the army
Best army in Europe
Became Europe’s 4th largest army (next to France, Russia & Austria)
80% of gov’t revenues went towards the military
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Prussian army was designed to avoid war through deterrence.
Only time Frederick William I fought a war was when Sweden occupied a city in
northern Germany; the Swedes were subsequently forced out
Most efficient bureaucracy in Europe
Removed the last of the parliamentary estates and local self-government
Demanded absolute obedience and discipline from civil servants
Promotions based on merit
Some commoners were able to rise to positions of power
High levels of taxation
Junkers remained the officers’ caste in the army in return for supporting the king’s
absolutism
Established approximately 1,000 schools for peasant children
Frederick II (“Frederick the Great”) – (r. 1740-1786)
Most powerful and famous of the Prussian kings
Considered to be an “Enlightened Despot” for his incorporation of Enlightenment
ideas into his reign.
Instituted a number of important reforms
Increased Prussia’s territory at the expense of the Austrian Hapsburgs
Russia
Historical background
During the Middle Ages the Greek Orthodox Church was significant in assimilating
Scandinavian ancestors of the Vikings with the Slavic peoples of eastern Europe.
In the 13th century, the Mongols from Asia invaded eastern Europe and ruled the
eastern Slavs for over two centuries
Authoritarian Mongol rule, led by the Mongol khan, left a legacy of ruthless leadership
that would continue in Russia in future centuries.
Eventually, princes of Moscow, who served the khan, began to consolidate their own
rule and replaced Mongol power. (Ivan I and Ivan III were the most important)
Muscovy began to emerge as the most significant principality that formed the nucleus
of what later became Russia.
However, the Russian nobles (boyars) and the free peasantry made it difficult for
Muscovite rulers to strengthen the state
Ivan III (“Ivan the Great”) (1442-1505)
1480, ended Mongol domination of Muscovy
Established himself as the hereditary ruler of Muscovy
This was in response to the fall of the Byzantine Empire and his desire to make
Moscow the new center of the Orthodox Church: the “Third Rome”
The tsar became the head of the church
The “2nd Rome” had been Constantinople before it was conquered by the Ottoman
Empire in 1453
Many Greek scholars, craftsmen, architects and artists were brought into Muscovy
Tsar claimed his absolute power was derived from divine right as ruler
Ivan struggled with the Russian boyars for power.
Eventually, the boyars’ political influence decreased but they began exerting more
control of their peasants.
Ivan IV (“Ivan the Terrible”) (1533-1584)
Background
Grandson of Ivan III
First to take the title of “tsar” (Caesar)
Married a Romanov
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Territorial expansion
Controlled the Black Sea region
Gained huge territories in the Far East
Gained territories in the Baltic region
Began westernizing Muscovy
Encouraged trade with England and the Netherlands
For 25 years, he fought unsuccessful wars against Poland-Lithuania
Military obligations deeply affected both nobles and peasants
These wars left much of central Europe depopulated
Cossacks: Many peasants fled the west to the newly-conquered Muscovite territories
in the east and formed free groups and outlaw armies.
Gov’t responded by increasing serfdom
Reduced the power of the boyars
All nobles had to serve the tsar in order to keep their lands
Serfdom increased substantially to keep peasants tied to noble lands
Many nobles were executed
Ivan blamed the boyars for his wife’s death and thus became increasingly cruel and
demented
Merchants and artisans were also bound to their towns so that the tsar could more
efficiently tax them
This contrasts the emergence of capitalism in western Europe where merchants
gained influence and more security over private property.
“Time of Troubles” followed Ivan IV’s death in 1584
Period of famine, power struggles and war
Cossack bands traveled north massacring nobles and officials
Sweden and Poland conquered Moscow
In response, nobles elected Ivan’s grand-nephew as new hereditary tsar and rallied
around him to drive out the invaders
Romanov dynasty
Lasted from the ascent of Michael Romanov in 1613 to the Russian Revolution in
1917.
Michael Romanov (1613-1645)
Romanov favored the nobles in return for their support
Reduced military obligations significantly
Expanded Russian empire to the Pacific Ocean in the Far East.
Fought several unsuccessful wars against Sweden, Poland and the Ottoman Empire
Russian society continued to transform in the 17th century
Nobles gained more exemptions from military service.
Rights of peasants declined
Bloody Cossack revolts resulted in further restrictions on serfs
“Old Believers” of the Orthodox Church resisted influx of new religious sects from
the west (e.g. Lutherans and Calvinists)
In protest, 20,000 burned themselves to death over 20 years
“Old Believers” were severely persecuted by the government
Western ideas gained ground
Western books translated into Russian, new skills and technology, clothing and
customs (such as men trimming their beards)
First Russian translation of the Bible began in 1649
By 1700, 20,000 Europeans lived in Russia
By 1689, Russia was the world’s largest country (3 times the size of Europe)
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Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725)
Background
His sister, Sophia, ruled as his regent early on.
Her plot to kill him failed and Peter had her banished to a monastery; his mother
Natalia took over as his regent
Peter began ruling in his own right at age 22
He was nearly 7 feet tall and so strong he could bend a horse shoe with his bare hands
Revolt of the Strelski was defeated by Peter in 1698
These Moscow guards had overthrown previous leaders
The security of Peter’s reign was now intact
Military power was Peter’s greatest concern
Each Russian village was required to send recruits for the Russian army; 25-year
enlistments
75% of the national budget was spent on the military by the end of Peter’s reign
Royal army of over 200,000 men plus additional 100,000 special forces of Cossacks
and foreigners
Established royal, military and artillery academies
All young male nobles required to leave home and serve 5 years of compulsory
education
Large navy built on the Baltic (though it declined after Peter’s death)
Non-nobles had opportunities to rise up the ranks
Great Northern War (1700-1721)
Russia (with Poland, Denmark and Saxony as allies) vs. Sweden (under Charles XII)
Battle of Poltava (1709) was the most decisive battle in Russia defeating Sweden.
Treaty of Nystad (1721): Russia gained Latvia and Estonia and thus gained its
“Window on the West” in the Baltic Sea.
Modernization and westernization was one of Peter’s major focuses
He traveled to the West as a young man to study its technology and culture
Military technology was his primary concern
He imported to Russia substantial numbers of western technicians and craftsmen to
aid in the building of large factories
By the end of his reign, Russia out-produced England in iron production (though
Sweden and Germany produced more)
Industrial form of serfdom existed in factories where workers could be bought and
sold
State-regulated monopolies created (echoed mercantilist policies of western Europe)
Actually stifled economic growth
Industrial serfs created inferior products
Government became more efficient
Tsar ruled by decree (example of absolute power)
Tsar theoretically owned all land in the state; nobles and peasants served the state
No representative political bodies
All landowners owed lifetime service to the state (either in the military, civil service,
or court); in return they gained greater control over their serfs
Table of Ranks
Set educational standards for civil servants (most of whom were nobles)
Peter sought to replace old Boyar nobility with new service-based nobility loyal to the
tsar
Russian secret police ruthlessly and efficiently crushed opponents of the state
Taxation
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Heavy on trade sales and rent
Head tax on every male
Turned the Orthodox Church into a government department in 1700
St. Petersburg
One of Peter’s crowning achievements
Sought to create a city similar to Amsterdam and the Winter Palace with the grandeur
of Versailles
By his death, the city was the largest in northern Europe (75,000 inhabitants)
St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia
Cosmopolitan in character
Construction began in 1703; labor was conscripted
Peter ordered many noble families to move to the city and build their homes
according to Peter’s plans
Merchants and artisans also ordered to live in the city and help build it
Peasants conscripted heavy labor in the city’s construction (heavy death toll—perhaps
100,000)
Peter’s reforms modernized Russia and brought it closer to the European mainstream
More modern military and state bureaucracy
Emerging concept of interest in the state, as separate from the tsars interest
Tsar began issuing explanations to his decrees to gain popular support
Essay Question – Louis XIV declared his goal was “one king, one law, one faith.” Analyze
the methods the king used to achieve this objective and discuss the extent to which
he was successful.