AP Test Review
Unit Two
The Reformations and Religious Wars
Ca. 1517-1648
The Protestant Reformation
Interconnected to the renaissance and
spurred on by rise of the merchant/middle
class, the growth of individualism, and
more activity in Biblical scholarship from
original texts.
Urged a return to a stronger and less
ritualistic Christian faith
Underlying Causes: Religious
14th – 15th century Church Crises
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Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Failure of the Conciliar Movement
Renaissance Popes “Secularism”
Underlying Causes: Religious
Corruption within the Catholic Church
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Simony: sale of church offices
Pluralism: holding more than one office
Absenteeism: an official not present within his
or her benefice
Nepotism: favor of family members
Immoral behavior of the clergy
Clerical Ignorance
Sale of indulgences
Underlying Causes: More
Religious
Early Catholic Reformation
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John Wyclif – Lollards, Bible as sole authority
John Hus – Vernacular translation of Bible
Thomas A Kempis – Imitation of Christ
• Brethren of Common Life (Lay mysticism)

Erasmus, In Praise of Folly
• Christian Humanism
Underlying Causes: Intellectual
Renaissance Humanism
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Liberal arts education could be used to root out
superstition and ignorance
Textual criticism of humanist thinkers
undermined Catholic authority
Underlying Causes: Political
Many political rulers saw the Church as a
foreign (Italian) imposition on their growing
political control and hated the fact that the
church had its own courts, owned much
land, and was exempt from local taxes.
N. German princes saw religious reform as
an excuse to pursue selfish desires to break
away from the HRE.
Underlying Causes: Economic
Papal taxes were a hated burden on
European nations and the rulers, the
merchants, and the peasants all resented the
payments.

Thought they were getting very little for their
money.
Popes, Cardinals, and bishops lived lavishly
at the expense of other Europeans.
Martin Luther & the 95 Theses
Pope Leo X authorized Johan Tetzel to sell
indulgences to make money for the new St.
Peter’s

“As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul
from purgatory springs.”
October 31,1517: Martin Luther posted the 95
Theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg
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Criticized the selling of indulgences and questioned
the pope’s authority to do so!
The printing press soon spread his ideas all over
Germany.
Challenging Church and Imperial
Authority
Leipzig Debates with Johann Eck in 1520

Denied the infallibility of the pope
Excommunication in 1520
Diet of Worms in 1521
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“Here I stand, I can do no other.”
Luther outlawed from HRE as a heretic!
Protected by Elector Frederick of Saxony
Luther’s Theology of Reform
Salvation through faith alone
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Good works follow faith, but only faith brings salvation!
Bible was the sole authority!

Translation into vernacular
Priesthood of All Believers

Rejected monasticism and clerical celibacy
Only two sacraments were valid
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Baptism and Communion
Consubstantiation, not Transubstantiation
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Real presence, but not actual transformation of material
Argued for a primitive separation of church from state
Spread and Survival of
Lutheranism
North German princes convert to Lutheranism
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Political motivated
Denmark and Sweden become Lutheran
German Peasants Revolts (1524-5)
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Used Lutheran teachings to demand an end to
serfdom
Luther refused to support the Peasants – he was
sympathetic to their complaints but believed in
secular obedience
Charles V neglect of the HRE (1521-1530)
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At war with the Valois in Italy
At war with the Turks in Eastern Europe
Religious Warfare
1530: council called at Augsburg by
Charles V to reconcile Catholic and
Lutheran differences.
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The Augsburg confession was the Lutheran
position, but it was rejected by the Catholics.
Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League
for protection.
1546: War broke out between N. Protestant
states and the Catholic HRE.
The Peace of Augsburg
After a series of stalemates, the Peace of
Augsburg was signed in 1555.
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“cius regio, eius religio”
only Lutheranism and Catholicism were
considered to be legal religions
provided religious freedom only to the princes:
everyone else was forced to abide by the
religion of the ruler.
*** denied Calivinism
Along with the Habsburg-Valois Wars, this
prevents Charles V from unifying Germany!
The Spread of Protestantism
Anabaptism – Adult Baptism

“Left wing” of Protestant Reformation
• Emphasized complete separation of church from
state
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Seizure and tragic fall of Munster in 1532
• Institution of polygamy
Long term impact of Anabaptists
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Mennonites and Quakers
• Both advocated pacifism
Zwingli (1484 - 1531)
Swiss Reformer, who established a theocracy in
Zurich
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Removed all artwork from churches
Ended the veneration of the saints
Similarities with Luther
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“justification by faith alone”
Bible is final authority, not the pope
Break with Luther
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Colloquy of Marburg
• Rejected “Real Presence” for a symbolic view of Eucharist
John Calvin (1509 - 1564)
Frenchman who was forced into exile in
Geneva when his protestant ideas came into
conflict with the catholic monarchy in France.
Main ideas were found in his book: Institutes
of the Christian Religion.
Founder of Calvinism, the theological
foundation of the religious practice of
Puritanism.
Major Tenets of Calvinism
Bible is the final authority
Predestination: God has already decided
who will be saved (“the elect”) and who
will not be (“the damned”).
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The elect will uphold God’s teachings and lead
exemplary lives. Their good works are only an
outward sign of their salvation.
People are saved by the grace of God, not by
faith and not by good works.
Purely symbolic communion
Theocracy in Geneva
New center of Reformation Europe by 1540
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Militant puritanism develops in Geneva
Establishment of Protestant Work Ethic
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Hard work pleased God, and financial success was an
outward sign of election
Church structure is lay-dominated
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Consistory – Lay elders fused religious law and secular
law
Michael Servetus is key example of the fusion of
church and state in Geneva
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Executed for denying the Trinity
Spread of Calvinism
Calvin’s ideas spread to other locations and became
popular in Europe:
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France: Huguenots
• Sets stage for the French Religious Wars
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Scotland: John Knox founded the Presbyterian church
• Sets stage for Charles I’s campaign against the Scots in late
1630s
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England: Puritanism
• Set stage for colonial expansion to New England as well as
English Civil War
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Holland: Dutch Reformed Church
• Set stage for Dutch Revolt as well as Dutch economic success
The English Reformation
English humanists and pre-reformers (such
as Huss and Wycliffe) called for an end to
the materialism of the church.
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William Tyndale translates the Bible into
English
Many English nobles strongly resented
papal dues and church controls.
England’s remote location gave it more
independence in religious matters.
Henry VIII & the Reformation
from Above
Henry sends Cardinal Wolsey to get him an
annulment from the pope. The pope
refused.(Charles V’s troops had sacked
Rome in 1527, and the pope was under the
control of Charles).
Henry arrested Wolsey for treason and
appointed Thomas Cranmer as the new
Archbishop of Canterbury.
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Cranmer annulled the marriage.
Establishment of the Church of
England
1534: Act of Supremacy: king replaces the
pope as head of the English church and
monasteries dissolved.
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Church lands were confiscated
1534: Act of Succession: Guaranteed the
ability of Anne Boleyn’s offspring to succeed
Henry as legitimate heirs to the throne
1539: Statute of the Six Articles
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Anglican Church was Catholic in practice but not
in name!!!
English Reformation Continued
Edward I
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Church becomes more protestant in practice
• Many Lutheran theological tenets are adopted in the
new Book of Common Prayer written by Cranmer
Mary I – “Bloody Mary”
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Revoked the legislation of Henry and Edward
Attempted to re-impose Catholicism
• Execution of hundreds of Protestants
“Elizabethan Settlement”
Elizabeth I – Politique
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1559 – Act of Supremacy
• Recognizes Elizabeth as head of the church
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1563 – Thirty-Nine Articles
• Established a middle ground between Catholics and
Protestants within the Church of England
– All citizens required to attend church
– Outward obedience required; inner conscience could not
be regulated
The Catholic CounterReformation
The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563):
Established by Pope Paul III

Response to the gains of Protestantism as well
as the critics within the Church
Unsuccessful in stopping the reformation,
but it is utilized to improve church
discipline through a reaffirmation of
existing doctrine
Components of Trent
Confirmation of:
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Equal validity of scripture, tradition, and writings of
Church fathers
Faith and good works were both necessary for salvation
Seven sacraments – including transubstantiation
Monasticism, clerical celibacy, and purgatory
Established the Index of Forbidden Books
Reforms:
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Ended sale of indulgences
Ended simony
Reformed bishoprics
Seminaries established to end ignorance
Formation of the Jesuits
Ignatius Loyola
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Absolute and militant obedience to Catholic
doctrine and beliefs, but combined these ideas with
the need for humanist education.
Goals
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Reform the church through education
Spread gospel through missionary activity
Defeat Protestantism
Achievements
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Oversaw the Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Contained Protestantism to Northern Europe
Introduced Christianity to East Asia
Spain’s Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98)
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Philip inherited a nation blessed with great wealth
in the form of gold and silver from the New World.
Goal: Reestablish Christendom!
Result: He squandered his inheritance by:
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spending huge amounts of resources by fighting
religious wars to try to halt the spread of the
Reformation;
purchasing luxury items from other nations to keep
the Spanish nobility happy.
Spain’s “Golden Age”
El Escorial
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Philip’s new royal palace symbolized Spain’s
political dominance and commitment to
Catholicism
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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Spanish vessels defeated the Turkish navy off
the coast of Greece
Ended the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean
The Dutch Revolt
Under the leadership of William of Orange
(William the Silent), the Calvinist Dutch
provinces united with the Catholic Dutch
provinces to assert their independence from
Spanish control
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Pacification of Ghent (1579)
Causes: The Calvinist provinces resented the
Inquisition and all of the provinces resented
the payment of taxes to Spain and high grain
prices.
The Dutch, continued
Philip, a intense and determined man, sent the
Duke of Alva to stop the revolt.
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His actions included the Council of Blood and the
sacking of Antwerp under Alexander Farnese.
Following the sacking of Antwerp, the
Catholic provinces left the Dutch alliance and
joined with the Spanish.
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The Catholic provinces eventually became
Belgium, while the Calvinist ones became the
United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch
Republic).
Spain vs England (Late 1500s)
Relations between the two nations had been
deteriorating since the death of Mary I
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Elizabeth reversed Mary’s Catholic policies and
refused Philip’s hand in marriage
Great rivalry existed between Spain and England
over control of the seas and control of new world
wealth (Francis Drake and the Sea Dogs)
Execution of Mary Queen of Scots after several
attempts failed to overthrow Elizabeth
Elizabeth supported the Dutch Republic!
Philip decided to attack England in an attempt
to restore Catholicism to the nation in 1588.
The Spanish Armada (1588)
The English decisively defeated the
Spanish Armada in 1588, thus preventing
any Spanish acquisition of England.
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Navy lay in ruins due to the Protestant Wind
Results:
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This defeat forever weakened Spain and led to
its decline in the next century.
Signaled the rise of England as a world naval
power
The Dutch Republic
Secured de facto independence from Spain
by the late 1500’s. This was made official
in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia.
Golden Age of the Dutch Republic: early
1600’s due to political stability, economic
prosperity, and cultural achievements.
THE FRENCH CIVIL WARS
Although France had only a small minority
of Huguenots (approx. 9% in 1560), they
had far more power than their numbers,
because most protestants were upper middle
class persons or members of the nobility.
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Many of these Huguenots became Calvinist as
an excuse to take a stand against the power of
the Valois family.
Result: A resurgence of feudal disorder!
Francis I and Henry II
Both of these kings were concerned about the
growing Protestant minority and actively
persecuted the Calvinists.
Unfortunately, Henry II died while his sons
were quite young, leaving Catherine de Medici
as the queen mother. Catherine had a difficult
time dealing with the various political and
religious factions in France and her religious
policies were disastrous for the nation.
Political and Religious
Problems in France
Three political factions were competing to
control France by 1560:
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Bourbons (Protestants)
Guises (Catholics)
Chatellions (Protestants)
Religious war broke out in 1562. Catherine
would switch sides, for a time supporting
the Protestants, then the Catholics, etc.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
Cause: Marriage of Valois princess to Henry
of Navarre

Designed to reconcile differences between Catholic
government and Protestant nobles
St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572
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Coligny (Prot. advisor) and several thousand
Parisian Protestants were killed by members of the
Guise family at the orders of Catherine
This again ignited more warfare and led
France into the “War of the Three Henry’s.”
The War of the Three Henry’s
In this war, England helped the Protestant
forces, and Spain helped the Catholics.
King Henry III (Cath.) and Henry of
Navarre (Prot.) vs. Henry Guise (Cath.)
Henry III was killed, and Henry of Navarre
won a series of military victories which
established him as King Henry IV and
created a new ruling dynasty in France--the
Bourbons.
King Henry IV (1589 - 1610)
When he took over, France was in a state of
religious and political disorder, and the
central government was severely weakened.
Henry rebuilt a devastated France with the
help of his advisor, the Duke of Sully.
The Politique

1593: Henry became Catholic (“Paris is worth a
mass”).
Achievements of Henry IV
1598: Edict of Nantes: granted religious
toleration to Protestants (1st legal
recognition of Calvinism in any nation).
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Catholicism was still the national religion (The
religion of most Frenchmen)
Protestants were given a number of liberties:
• Free to worship privately (in select cities)
• Access to university and public office
• Right to maintain fortified towns
More Achievements of Henry
Strengthened the power of the monarch by
weakening the power of the nobility.

Put France on a gradual course towards
absolutism
Began an extensive program for economic
improvements--repairing and constructing
roads, bridges and harbors, reclaiming
marsh lands, fostering agriculture, and
repairing the bankrupt government.
The Thirty Years’ War (1618
- 1648)
Forever weakened the HRE and paved the
way for French continental supremacy.
Approx. 1/3 of the population died and
approx. 1/2 of the wealth of the German
states was depleted.

This decimation set the stage for the long-term
fragmentation of central Europe.
Underlying Cause: The Failure of the Peace
of Augsburg!!
The Bohemian Phase (1618 - 1625)
Cause: Defenestration of Prague
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Protestant, Frederick V of Bohemia demanded
more autonomy for Bohemia from Ferdinand II
(HRE)
Catholic officials thrown out a window in response
to greater restrictions placed on Protestant Bohemia
The Protestant forces were decisively defeated
at the Battle of White Mountain and Frederick
was deposed.

Protestantism was eliminated in Bohemia
The Danish Phase (1625 - 1629)
Danish King Christian IV stepped up to lead
the Protestants who were nearly wiped out
after phase I.
The protestant forces experienced more losses
at the hands of Albrecht von Wallenstein.
The Edict of Restitution forced protestants to
restore to the Catholic church all lands that had
been taken from it since 1552.

This was a major defeat for the Protestants.
The Swedish Phase (1630 - 1635)
Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus and his
army landed in Germany, starting phase III of
the war.
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Liberated Protestant territory lost during the Danish
phase of the war
Cardinal Richelieu of Catholic France
supported Gustavus and the Protestant forces
in an attempt to control the power of the
Hapsburgs.

Result: Successful! Ended any real hope of the
Habsburgs imposing Catholicism on the HRE
Swedish Phase, continued
Many early protestant victories, but Gustavus
was killed in the battle of Luetzen in 1632.
Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in
1634.
Thus, this phase of the war was a costly one
for both sides.

But with the death of Adolphus, France feared a
Catholic revival during the next stage of the war!
The French, or International,
Phase (1635 - 1648)
France sent troops to support the Protestant
princes of the HRE

Just as in the Habsburg-Valois Wars
Cath. France + Prot. Sweden vs. Cath. HRE
+ Prot. Denmark + Cath. Spain

As one can see, this was no longer a religious
war…it was purely political!!!!
1645: Denmark surrendered
1648: Germans called for a truce.
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
E – End of Wars of Religion
F – France emerges as #1 in Europe
C – Calvinism added to Peace of Augsburg
H – HRE made irrelevant
I – Independence of Dutch and Swiss
P – Prussia emerges as a new power
The Final Phase (1648 - 1659)
Although the German states were no longer
involved as combatants in the war, Spain and
France continued to war over their differences,
fighting on German soil.
Both nations looted and pillaged the German
lands, and the devastated Germans were
helpless in stopping them.
This phase ended with the Treaty of the
Pyranees.