1
Jonathan Gallo
December 6, 2010
History 200
Greater Society
Robert F. Kennedy never held the Presidency, or had the longevity of his brother in the
Senate, but Robert Kennedy’s legacy is nothing to scoff at. Kennedy’s legacy is often defined by
civil rights. His policies greatly shaped the American inner-city. In his seven years as Attorney
General and Senator, Kennedy made great strides towards civil rights reform. Kennedy’s focus
on civil rights was driven by Lyndon Baines Johnson’s indifference on domestic issues. It was
Johnson’s involvement in Vietnam that drove Kennedy to pick up Johnson’s Great Society and
focus on social issues.
Robert Francis Kennedy was born on November 20, 1925 in Brookline, Massachusetts.
He was the seventh child of Rose and Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.1 His father worked for the
government as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom.2 Joseph Kennedy’s
involvement in politics inspired his sons. According to historian accounts Robert Kennedy was
not destined for a career in politics. He was viewed along the lines of a smart intellectual, a lover
of literature, and a mother’s boy. His father did not see Robert fit for the job. Joseph Kennedy Sr.
placed most of the political ambitions on his eldest son Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. He would carry
the mantle until he died tragically in 1944 during World War II. After Joseph Kennedy Jr.’s
death, the mantle was passed down to the next eldest son John F. Kennedy, in a form of
Robert F. Kennedy Center for Human Rights and Justice, “Biography,” Robert F. Kennedy Memorial,
http://rfkmemorial.mediathree.net/lifevision/biography/ (Accessed November 21, 2010).
2
U.S. Department of State, “American Ambassadors to the United Kingdom,” About Us,
http://london.usembassy.gov/rcambex.html (Accessed November 21, 2010).
1
2
twentieth century political dynasty primogeniture.3 While waiting his turn Robert Kennedy
received a degree in government from Harvard and a law degree from the University of Virginia.
He would first put his knowledge of law to the test first in 1951 when he began working
for the Criminal Division of the U.S. Department of Justice.4 In 1952 he became the campaign
manager for his brother John’s Senatorial campaign. He would eventually work with Senator
Joseph McCarthy on the Senate Sub Committee on Investigations.5 This seemed like a rather odd
pairing, a man coming from such a liberal tradition and background, working for a well known
Republican “red-hunter.” The McCarthy’s were family friends of the Kennedy’s. They were both
Irish-Catholic and they held mutual respect for each other.6 Robert’s relationship with McCarthy
lasted only six months. Kennedy resigned over disputes regarding McCarthy’s tactics. 7
In 1957 while working for the U.S. Department of Justice, Kennedy gained fame for
taking on union boss Jimmy Hoffa.8 Kennedy was later appointed Attorney General by his
brother John in 1960 despite some controversy surrounding his qualifications.9 As Attorney
General he worked hard for Civil Rights and would remain as Attorney General until the Lyndon
Baines Johnson Administration. Kennedy and Johnson’s distrust of each other led Kennedy to
leave his position of Attorney General and seek a seat in the U.S. Senate.
3
Lance Marrow, “Books: The Great What-If,” Time, September 18, 2000,
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,997978-1,00.html (Accessed November 21, 2010).
4
John Simkin, “Robert F. Kennedy: Biography,” Spartacus Educational,
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAkennedyR.htm (Accessed November 18, 2010).
5
Robert F. Kennedy Center for Human Rights and Justice, “Biography.”
6
John McAdams, “The Kennedy’s and McCartyism,” Marquette.edu,
http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/progjfk2.htm (Accessed November 21, 2010).
7
Robert F. Kennedy Center for Human Rights and Justice, “Biography.”
8
John Simkin, “Robert F. Kennedy: Biography.”
9
W.H. Lawrence, "Dillon Appointed Secretary of Treasury; Kennedy's Brother Is Attorney General:
Second Republican Gets Post in New Cabinet -- President Approves Dillon Is Named Treasury Chief," New York
Times (December 17, 1960), 1, Proquest Historical Newspapers, http://proquest.umi.com (Accessed November 18,
2010).
3
Robert Kennedy was often a conflicted man, balancing his pragmatism and fatalism.10
Kennedy’s sense of fatalism is often attributed to his loss of three siblings at young ages (Joseph
who died during World War II, his sister Kathleen who died in a plane crash and his brother John
who was assassinated).11 The “Kennedy Curse” weighed deeply on Robert who at times felt like
his days were numbered. Robert Kennedy did not plan far ahead, but he did push his ideas with
great force.12 His fatalistic nature propelled Kennedy to do things which seemed politically
daring. He ran for Senate in a state he barely lived in and took on multiple projects as Attorney
General and as junior Senator from New York.
In 1964 Kennedy ran for Senator in New York. His opponent Republican incumbent
Senator Kenneth Keating challenged Kennedy in a close race. Keating referred to Kennedy
numerous times as a “carpetbagger.”13 Keating challenged the intention of Kennedy’s run.
Kennedy was able to garner vast support form minorities and the poor. Aided by Johnson’s
support and popularity Kennedy was able to win election by over 719,000 votes.14 Kennedy’s
victory foreshadowed the end of Johnson’s career. Johnson gave Kennedy the opportunity to
challenge him in the Senate.
Kennedy’s fatalistic nature propelled him to run for Senate, but four years later in 1968,
Kennedy took his time entering the 1968 democratic primary. It is rather ironic and odd that
Kennedy entered the 1968 democratic primary with such trepidation, but Kennedy was weighing
other factors in his decision to run. The biggest thing that got in the way of a presidential run was
the thought of a tough primary. Kennedy knew that running against an incumbent president in a
primary would only weaken the Democratic Party and would help the Republican Party in the
10
Jules Witcover, 85 Days: The Last Campaign of Robert Kennedy (New York: Putnam, 1969), 26.
William F. Buckley Jr., “The Kennedy Curse?” National Review September 1, 2003, 54.
12
Witcover, 85 Days, 26.
13
Robert F. Kennedy Center for Human Rights and Justice, “Biography.”
14
Robert F. Kennedy Center for Human Rights and Justice, “Biography.”
11
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general election.15 Kennedy was also very concerned about his public image. Kennedy had a
contentious relationship with Johnson and he did not want the media to paint his run against
Johnson as a personal vendetta.16 Before the primaries Kennedy was approached by Allard K.
Lowenstein a hot shot young lawyer from New York, who was searching for an anti-Johnson
candidate; Kennedy declined to run and told Lowenstein to look elsewhere. When Lowenstein
asked Eugene McCarthy to represent his views 1968 Democratic Primary McCarthy suggested
Lowenstein to ask Kennedy instead. McCarthy would even add that if elected President he would
serve one term and offer to step down if Kennedy wanted to run.17 The closer it got to the
primary the more Kennedy became fed up with Johnson. He believed that Johnson turned his
back on the inner-cities. He believed that Johnson turned a blind eye to riots. He felt that Johnson
was avoiding these problems in order to gain greater white support for his next election.18
Kennedy felt that Johnson was not doing enough in light of the findings of the Kerner Report.
Kennedy firmly believed that Johnson gave the Vietnam War was given greater priority over
domestic matters. It bothered Kennedy to know that money that could have been used for
Johnson’s Great Society was going to an unpopular and devastating war.19 He stated that
Johnson was “unwilling to fight with one-hundredth the money or force or effort to secure
freedom in Mississippi or Alabama or the ghettoes of the North.”20
Kennedy was also displeased by the results of the Tet Offensive. He was not fond of US
involvement in Vietnam. As Attorney General and as Senator he felt uneasy about the bombings.
He formally broke with Johnson on Vietnam on February 10, 1966 after delivering a speech to
15
Witcover, 85 Days, 26.
Witcover, 85 Days, 55.
17
Witcover, 85 Days, 28, and 38.
18
Witcover, 85 Days, 43.
19
Witcover, 85 Days, 52-53.
20
Stuart Gerry Brown, The Presidency on Trial: Robert Kennedy’s 1968 Campaign and Afterward
(Honolulu, Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii, 1972), 75.
16
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the Senate. Kennedy planned on supporting Johnson in 1968 for the sake of party unity, but the
Tet Offensive was the last straw.21 He saw the bloody conflict as an example of bad US military
policy.22 Kennedy believed that negotiating peace was the only way to end the bloody stalemate.
Kennedy grew strong in his convictions and tore into the Tet Offensive, the war, and President
Johnson at a luncheon event for the Chicago Sun-Times.23 The findings in the Kerner Report and
the failure Tet Offensive led Kennedy to strongly consider running against Johnson. The public
threw their support to Kennedy and after listening to his inner-circle Kennedy declared his
candidacy on March 16, 1969.24
Kennedy’s announcement to run came after the New Hampshire primary, which
McCarthy surprisingly won over Johnson. Due to the delayed announcement Kennedy missed
ballot registration deadlines in Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. Kennedy was able
to garner some support in these states as a write-in candidate, but he unable to finish above
second in these races. Kennedy was able to enter the Indiana primary. Kennedy knew that
Indiana was going to be a close race; he was hoping that a win in Indiana would put him on top
and build momentum in his favor.25 Kennedy was able to pull out the win in Indiana as well as
Washington D.C., a week later Kennedy won the Nebraska primary. Kennedy would hit a bump
in the road and lose to McCarthy in the Oregon primary.26 The loss did not concern Kennedy,
because Oregon was a red state. McCarthy was able to get most of his votes from conservative
21
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 27-28.
Witcover, 85 Days, 46.
23
Witcover, 85 Days, 48- 49.
24
Witcover, 85 Days, 53, 29, and 56.
25
John Herbers, “Enter Indiana’s Primary: Aides Expect a Close Race -- They Want Senator to Show
Strength Early Kennedy To Enter Indiana’s Primary,” New York Times (March 28, 1968), 1, Proquest Historical
Newspapers, http://proquest.umi.com (Accessed November 21, 2010).
26
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, “Robert F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information,”
Historical Resources,
http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Robert+F.+Kennedy+Miscellaneous+Inf
ormation.htm (Accessed November 21, 2010).
22
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voters. McCarthy won many red states in the Democratic Primary, and could only draw on the
support of white people. McCarthy was able to attract many anti-Vietnam voters, but to many
political scientists McCarthy was nothing more than a one issue candidate. He did not
significantly deal with the poor, urban decay, or the ghettos.27 On June 4, 1968 Kennedy faced
McCarthy in three primaries. Kennedy wound up defeating McCarthy in California and South
Dakota, but lost to McCarthy in New Jersey.28 That night after Kennedy left the stage of the
Ambassador Hotel he was shot by Sirhan Sirhan a twenty-four year old Jordanian man, who was
upset over Kennedy’s pro-Israel views. Kennedy was rushed to the hospital and stayed alive for
one more day, before passing away on June 6, 1968.29
Robert Kennedy’s record on Civil Rights is a somewhat mixed one. At times his actions
were paralyzed by his desire for pragmatism. Robert Kennedy and the Kennedy White House
seemed to have a strained relationship with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. King at times felt that
Kennedy administration was not giving him enough help, while Robert Kennedy believed that it
was the administration’s actions that were keeping King alive.30 Kennedy was asked by the head
of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, to authorize wiretapping King. It was an awkward situation, but
there was a case of concern for Kennedy and Hoover. According to Jack and Morris Childs, two
FBI plants within the Communist Party USA, one of King’s closest advisors Stanley David
Levison was a leading contributor and financer to the CPUSA. Even though Levison officially
stopped donating to the party before he met King in 1956, the FBI had reasons to suspect
Levison’s continued involvement in CPUSA. In an interview with Arthur Schlesinger Jr. in
27
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 7-8.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, “Robert F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information.”
29
PBS Online, “Shock Year: 1968,” RFK American Experience,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rfk/sfeature/sf_1968_text_06.html (Accessed November 22, 2010).
30
O. Edwin Guthman and Jeffrey Shulman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words: The Unpublished
Recollections of the Kennedy Years (New York: Bantam Books, 1988), 89.
28
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1976, Levison told him, he suggested King to cut off contact with him in 1963. He felt that his
involvement might jeopardize the Kennedys’ chances of passing any major civil rights reform.31
King continued to interact with Levison and his CPUSA associates even after President Kennedy
told him that he “was under close surveillance.”32 The FBI did not prove to be that helpful in the
investigation of King and Levison. They seemed to intentionally smear and hold up evidence
clearing King.33 Much of this deceitfulness can be traced back to the head of the FBI J. Edgar
Hoover. Hoover was as a social conservative who had a penchant for racism. Hoover openly
collected dirt on individuals. He seemed to go out of his way to discredit King; he even described
King as a communist in government memos. It was Hoover’s techniques and deceitfulness, that
led a congressional investigation in 1976 to conclude that “the FBI’s campaign against King as
‘one of the most abusive of all FBI programs.’”34
Even though Kennedy authorized the wiretapping of King, Kennedy admired him, for
both Kennedy and King played a major role in the Civil Rights movement. On April 4, 1968, a
day in which a large African American crowd gathered to see Kennedy speak, King was
assassinated. Kennedy learnt that no one in the crowd knew of King’s death. Kennedy knew he
was the one who had to announce the news to the crowd. Kennedy made the announcement
without the support of the police chief, or a police escort. Kennedy’s speech was not well
prepared or planned. He did not stand on a stage or podium, but on a back of a flatbed truck.
After announcing the news of King’s death the crowd burst into shock and despair. Kennedy
heard the crowd’s cries and delivered a short, impromptu memorized speech. Kennedy
David J. Garrow, “The FBI and Martin Luther King,” The Alantic, July/August, 2002,
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/07/the-fbi-and-martin-luther-king/2537/ (Accessed November
21, 2010).
32
American Public Media, “The FBI’s War on King,” American Radio Works,
http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/king/d1.html (Accessed November 18, 2010).
33
David J. Garrow, “The FBI and Martin Luther King.”
34
David J. Garrow, “The FBI and Martin Luther King.”
31
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referenced King’s beliefs especially his pacifism and yearning for peace. Kennedy acknowledged
the crowd’s anger and understood there feeling of revenge. Kennedy mentioned the pain and
anger he felt after the assassination of his brother; this shocked many of his aides and those in the
audience, because Robert Kennedy rarely mentioned his brother’s death in public. The open and
candid Kennedy called on the crowd to seek unity among African Americans and white
Americans.35 That night over 100 cities rioted and Indianapolis was not one of them. Many
historians credit Kennedy’s speech as the reason there were no riots in Indianapolis. Kennedy
was able to relate personal tragedy to a national tragedy and his openness helped stem anger and
violence.36
Robert Kennedy focused heavily on legislation that affected the poor. One act in
particular that played a significant role in Kennedy’s campaign was the Manpower Development
and Training Act of 1962. This bill promised to train workers with new technology.37 This bill
was signed into law on March 5, 1962 by President John F. Kennedy. Robert Kennedy would
look at this bill and would favor similar programs for urban revival.38
During his 1964 Senatorial campaign Kennedy wanted the Office of Economic
Opportunity and the Labor Department to help train or retrain unemployed blacks and teach them
how to use new technology. Kennedy, however, realized that many jobs left the slums, and that
there were jobs available to African Americans in the inner-cities.39 During the 1960s 11% of the
unemployed were out of work for at least twenty-seven weeks. Most of the unemployed workers
were middle-aged and young married men. A lot of these people did not qualify for
National Public Radio, “Robert Kennedy Delivering the News of King’s Death,” Echoes of 1968, April 4,
2008, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=89365887 (Accessed November 18, 2010).
36
National Public Radio, “Robert Kennedy Delivering the News of King’s Death.”
37
Gladys Roth Kremen, “MDTA: The Origins of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962,”
U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/mono-mdtatext.htm (Accessed November
21, 2010).
38
Kremen, “MDTA: The Origins of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962).”
39
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 50.
35
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unemployment insurance. Unions were able to lessen this blow by creating training programs.
Some states followed suit and established their own training programs.
Another bill Kennedy voted on was the Adult Education Act of 1966. This act sought to
raise literacy standards and raise education standards beyond a high school level. This resembled
a bill put together by President Kennedy, shortly before his assassination. The Adult Education
Act of 1966 was able to pass, do in part because the Voting Rights Act of 1964 already banned
literacy tests. Many southerners felt that since literacy tests were banned, they might as well
educate the African American electorate so they could at least know who they were voting for.40
This bill reflected Kennedy’s concerns over education as well as voting rights.
The relationship between Robert Kennedy and Johnson was a rocky one. In 1960 Robert
opposed John Kennedy’s decision to choose Johnson as his running mate. At the time many
northern liberals opposed the pick of a southern Democrat as vice-president.41 According to an
interview with Schesinger, Robert Kennedy said that the vice-presidential pick was rushed and
that it was only about politics. He told Schesinger that he tried to talk Johnson out of joining the
ticket.42 Kennedy was not fond of Johnson’s previous remarks on his father’s isolationist
record.43 Robert Kennedy also disapproved of the rhetoric Johnson used in midst of the 1960
Democratic Primary. Johnson brought up John Kennedy’s religion as well as his health. Johnson
even referred to John Kennedy as the 'little scrawny fellow with rickets.” Robert Kennedy
seemed to be the only person in the Kennedy camp to be seriously offended, by Johnson’s
Samuel Halperin, “Reflections on the Fortieth Birthday of the Adult Education Act of 1966,” Librarian,
(December 22, 2006) http://librarian.lishost.org/?p=628 (Accessed November 20, 2010).
41
Claude Sitton, "Johnson Choice Hailed By South: Many Delegates See Doubts of Party Loyalty Ended –
Liberals Are Bitter," New York Times (July 15, 1960), 8, Proquest Historical Newspapers, http://www.proquest.com/
(Accessed December 8, 2010).
42
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 20, and 22.
43
"The Nation," New York Times (June 27, 1965), E2, Proquest Historical Newspapers,
http://www.proquest.com/ (Accessed December 8, 2010).
40
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rhetoric. As relation Robert Kennedy started up a whispering campaign regarding Johnson’s
1955 heart attack.44
Kennedy felt that Johnson was a nice person, he never spoke out against the president,
but he offered no advice during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy was also upset that Johnson
opposed the 1963 Civil Rights Bill.45 Following the death of his brother, Robert saw Johnson as
a “usurper to his brother’s New Frontier.”46 Robert Kennedy believed that Johnson sent his
brother on an errand when he was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963.47 Johnson also
harbored some animosity towards Kennedy. Johnson rejected the idea of selecting Kennedy as a
running mate in 1964. Kennedy and Johnson’s distrust of each other led Kennedy to leave his
position as Attorney General and seek a seat in the U.S. Senate.
One thing in particular that drove Kennedy mad about Johnson, was Johnson’s inaction in
light of the findings of the Kerner Report. The Kerner Report was findings put together by the
Nation Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, on riots and urban decay.48 Between 19651968, 329 riots occurred. The Report suggested that white racism and racial tensions were to
blame.49 The commission suggested that the government should spend billions of dollars in
government run programs dealing with education, employment, and housing. Senator Edward
Brooke said that the findings of the report were too strong for Johnson, and that there was
nothing significant Johnson could do during an election year. Kennedy ripped into Johnson’s
David M. Oshinsky, “Fear and Loathing in the White House,” New York Times (October 26, 1997), 48,
Proquest Historical Newspapers, http://proquest.umi.com (Accessed December 8, 2010).
45
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 23.
46
Witcover, 85 Days, 20.
47
Michiko Kakutani, “A Bitter Rivalry That Shaped History,” New York Times (October 24, 1997), E45,
Proquest Historical Newspapers, http://proquest.umi.com (Accessed December 8, 2010).
48
George Mason University, “’Our Nation is Moving Toward Two Societies, One Black, One WhiteSeparate and Un Equal’: Excerpts from the Kerner Report,” History Matters, March 31, 2006,
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6545/ (Accessed November 21, 2010).
49
Howard Manly, “An Unfilled Prescription for Racial Equality,” Black History, (February 28, 2008)
http://www.baystate-banner.com/issues/2008/02/28/news/blackhistory02280890.htm (Accessed November 22,
2010).
44
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inactivity in light of the Report findings, telling Schlesinger that “My brother barely had a
chance to get started — and there is so much now to be done — for the Negroes and unemployed
and the school kids and everyone else who is not getting a decent break in our society ... the new
fellow doesn’t get this. He knows all about politics and nothing about human beings.”50 This
quote reveals Kennedy’s bitterness towards Johnson; it shows that Kennedy was still upset by the
manner Johnson took office.
The Kerner Report has been criticized by a number of people. At the time of its release
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. found nothing ground breaking in the report. He felt that the Report
echoed ideas that most African Americans and white people already knew. There are also other
contemporary historians who find the revelations of the Report flawed. Harvard University
Professor Stephan Thernstrom wonders if white racism was solely to blame for the riots, why
were there not many riots during 1930s, a period in which African Americans had fewer rights.
He also questions why there were more major riots in the north than the south.51
Robert Kennedy was able to carve up his own legacy during his short time in politics. He
was well respected amongst his political peers. Liberal Republican Nelson Rockefeller said
Kennedy ‘died because he dared to speak out on the issues before the American people.”52
Kennedy, unlike all the other candidates in the 1968 campaign, was able to bring together many
different types of people. He appealed to African Americans, Puerto Ricans, the poor and the
young. He interacted with his supporters, frequently reaching out and touching the crowds.53 He
held rallies in poor urban areas like Jamaica, Queens and interacted and spoke to laborers and
Manly, “An Unfilled Prescription for Racial Equality.”
Manly, “An Unfilled Prescription for Racial Equality.”
52
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 10.
53
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 20.
50
51
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teenagers.54 He sought “a newer world” one in which there was no poverty, alienation, or
racism.55 Kennedy made connections between communism and poverty. He believed that the
conditions of poverty, illiteracy and disease could lead to the spread of communism in Latin
America. Kennedy wanted Washington to provide the “assistance for the modernization and
democratization of “Latin America.56 Kennedy also noted this problem at home. During his 1964
campaign for the Senate, he traveled all over the country interacting with African American
leaders, who represented various ghettos across the country. He was able to see and experience
for himself the plight of the urban poor.57
Kennedy was realistic; he planned on decreasing the military budget as well as using
taxes to pay for his programs.58 Kennedy planned on cutting spending to superfluous projects;
like space travel. He felt that exploring space did not amount to anything when people at home
are living in terrible conditions.59 Kennedy looked at numbers regarding unemployment, access
to health care, infant mortality, crime, and physical and emotional illness. He looked for
solutions to these and many other problems.60 Kennedy wanted the Office of Economic
Opportunity and the Labor Department to help train unemployed African Americans. He wanted
them to teach them how to use new technologies. He noticed jobs were leaving the slums and
Martin Arnold, "Kennedy Pledges Attack on Slums: Assails Keating’s Record and Urges U.S.
Action," New York Times (October 7, 1964), P37, Proquest Historical Newspapers, http://proquest.umi.com
(Accessed November 7, 2010).
55
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 21.
56
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 37-38.
57
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 47 and George Mason University, “Our Nation is Moving Toward Two
Societies, One Black, One White-Separate and Un-Equal.”
58
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 41.
59
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 64-65.
60
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 49-51.
54
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Kennedy planned on offering them incentives to stay or set up in cities.61 He offered companies
low interest rates and other tax incentives.62
Kennedy was a smart man, who was not blinded by national numbers regarding
unemployment. Kennedy did his research, he traveled all over the country, and he often revealed
his findings to the public. In a presidential debate with Eugene McCarthy, Kennedy argued that
even though the national unemployment rate is a rather tame 3.5%, many cities that he visited
had unemployment rates upwards of 30, 40, 80, and 100%.63
Kennedy also planned to address situations like imprisonment. He wanted to end what he
perceived was an endless bail cycle. He felt that imprisonment was holding the ghettos back and
he supported available education for prisoners.64
Kennedy was also a supporter of private businesses. This was surprising to learn, because
liberal politicians tend to favor federal programs over private ones. Kennedy did not oppose the
concept of federal programs. He was, however, extremely careful not to circumvent the
Constitution and overstep federal bounds. He also supported private businesses because he
thought that it was a more practical option. He felt that “total reliance on government would be a
mistake. It would not only be astronomically costly to the taxpayer; more important, it would
make the program, the people of the ghetto, totally dependent on politics-on year-to-year
appropriations, and the favors of others.”65 He believed that the creation of jobs would help deter
the welfare system and help end people’s reliance on the federal government. Kennedy believed
that private companies would move back into the ghettos if they received tax breaks. He put
61
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 50.
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 58.
63
"Excerpts From the Kennedy-McCarthy Televised Discussion of Campaign Issues," New York
Times (June 2, 1968), P64, Proquest Historical Newspapers, http://proquest.umi.com (Accessed November 21,
2010).
64
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 53.
65
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 58.
62
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forth an idea in the Senate, that businesses owned by the poor should be funded by a program of
developmental loans. He wanted the government to encourage drop outs to seek an educationlink promotion, which would offer them a part-time job as well as a part-time education. Above
all Kennedy wanted these newly educated people to give back to the community and build
clinics, and pursue careers in construction.66
Kennedy’s plans were not just theory. He was actually able to implement them. He was
able to get companies like IBM to move into neighborhoods like Bedford-Stuyvesant and create
upwards of 300 jobs.67 Even though Kennedy supported private industries he was quick to
criticize them too. He believed that companies had a moral obligation to the community and that
they should use their profits wisely.68 He was also not afraid to take a stand against companies
that none or a low number of African Americans working for them.69
Kennedy had a significant connection to voting rights and democracy. In 1963 he helped
draw up a civil rights bill with his brother John.70 Robert Kennedy felt that voting could cure a
lot of evils in society. Kennedy forcefully pushed the issue of voting rights, because voting was a
fundamental right and, because it was hard for him to conceive on anybody being opposed to
voting.71 Kennedy felt that African Americans could use their votes to address their grievances.72
Kennedy did not care about the political implications of letting a bloc of African American
voters; finally participate in their civic duty. He did not see voting rights legislation as a means to
gain more Democratic supporters. In fact Kennedy expected the most new African American
voters to support Republican candidates. Kennedy felt that historically the Republican Party best
66
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 66.
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 66.
68
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 75.
69
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 23.
70
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 98.
71
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 107.
72
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 201.
67
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represented African American interests. He revealed in an interview with Schlesinger, that it was
Barry Goldwater’s presidential campaign and divisive politics that drove African American
voters from the Republican to the Democratic Party. 73
Kennedy seldom wanted to exert federal power over the states. He disliked using federal
troops in order to force integration or deal with states issues; however he was able to reconcile
his disdain of using federal power when lives were at stake. He regretted his indecisiveness
during the integration of the University of Mississippi, which left two people dead.74 He made up
for this by utilizing federal power in subsequent civil rights issues, such as the integration of the
University of Alabama.75 Kennedy saw how the structure of government paralyzed action and
progress. It frustrated Kennedy knowing that that it would have been easier to simply impose
civil rights. He recognized that more could be done, if the federal government could impose its
will over state and local government. He quipped with Schlesinger that a lot more could have
been done if his brother was a totalitarian dictator, but he recognized that even if the separation
of powers could be pain in the neck at times, it was better than one person or branch wielding too
much power.76
In my research I utilized many sources. For this paper I relied heavily on books and news
articles. One the books I used for my paper was Jules Witcover’s 85 Days: The Last Campaign
of Robert Kennedy. I had to track down this book at the New York Public Library, but I did not
mind, because the information proved useful in my research. One of the things that I liked about
the book was that it was published in 1969, one year after Robert Kennedy’s death. It was really
interesting to see the author’s perspective on the matter that soon after the campaign. The book
73
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 105-106.
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 161.
75
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 190.
76
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 99.
74
16
contained many details regarding the campaign. For Jules Witcover the events surrounding the
1968 Democratic Primary were still fresh in his head. The book took a close look at the inside of
the Kennedy campaign.77 Witcover clearly showed the power players in Robert’s inner-circle,
most notably his brother Edward and other aides from his brother’s administration. Witcover
focused heavily on Kennedy’s decision to run. He went into detail about Kennedy’s fatalistic
nature and he often used Kennedy’s own words against him.78 Witcover’s book focused on the
Vietnam War, especially the Tet Offensive. The book contrasted Kennedy and Johnson’s foreign
policy views. The book read like a journal, detailing chronologically Kennedy’s thought process
and decision to enter the 1968 election.
Another book I relied on was Stuart Gerry Brown’s The Presidency on Trial. Brown’s
book was published in 1972 by The University Press of Hawaii. Brown cited many of Robert
Kennedy’s books as well as various New York Times articles. I was able to utilize some of
Brown’s New York Time sources in my paper. Brown’s objective was to compare Robert
Kennedy to other presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Nixon. Brown’s book peaked my
interest, because it featured a lot of information regarding Robert Kennedy and civil rights.
Brown painted Kennedy as a social liberal who favored private business.79 Brown analyzed
legislation that Kennedy supported and fought for. This led me to do additional research on
Kerner Report, Economic Opportunity Act, and other similar civil rights bills. This book made
me realize that the time Johnson spent dealing with the Vietnam War was a disastrous time for
civil rights and domestic issues.80
77
Witcover, 85 Days, 29.
Witcover, 85 Days, 2-27, and 40.
79
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 58.
80
Brown, The Presidency on Trial, 19.
78
17
One of the more fun and interesting sources I used was Robert Kennedy In His Own
Words: The Unpublished Recollections of the Kennedy Years. This work featured interviews
with Kennedy, Schlesinger, Anthony Lewis and John Bartlow Martin.81 The book was broken up
into three sections regarding the Kennedy administration, the Civil Rights Movement, and the
Vietnam War. The first section of interviews were about the Kennedy Administration. In this
section of interviews Robert Kennedy spoke candidly about his brother’s decision to nominate
Johnson as vice-president. Kennedy freely voiced his displeasure over Johnson’s selection. In the
second set of interviews Kennedy talked about civil rights. This section revealed that Kennedy
felt tentative of exerting federal power over a state. Kennedy is seen as a supporter of state
rights. Kennedy emphasizes his support for civil rights, but mentions that he often feels
paralyzed by the law.82
One of the most exciting sources I used was Mutual Contempt: Lyndon Johnson, Robert
Kennedy, and the Feud That Defined a Decade by Jeff Shesol. I did not get to read the book, but
I was able to read reviews of the book online. The online reviews of the book helped me gain a
better understanding of the relationship between Johnson and Kennedy. Jeff Shesol’s book deals
solely with the relationship between Kennedy and Johnson. It can be implied from the title that
both Kennedy and Johnson disliked each other. The reviews mentioned Kennedy disliked
Johnson, because of the manner he ascended to power. Johnson disliked Kennedy, because
Kennedy’s presence constantly reminded him that he was an “accidental president.”83 The book
details the relationship between Johnson and Kennedy even after Kennedy’s death, detailing
81
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 5, 66, and 239.
Guthman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 99.
83
Kakutani, “A Bitter Rivalry That Shaped History.”
82
18
Johnson’s refusal to fund Robert Kennedy’s permanent grave site at Arlington National
Cemetery.84
My paper combines many of the features of the sources I used. I am focusing on how
Johnson’s Vietnam policy affected Robert Kennedy. By turning his back away from domestic
issues and concentrating on foreign policy, Johnson gave Kennedy an opportunity to focus on
and concentrate on civil rights and social issues. My argument revolves around three different
issues, the war in Vietnam, the Civil Rights Movement and the personal relationship between
Johnson and Kennedy. I incorporate ideas form Witcover regarding Vietnam, Brown regarding
Kennedy and civil rights and Shesol regarding Johnson and Kennedy’s relationship. Even though
I incorporate all these authors’ ideas, I believe that I am putting forward an original argument.
Johnson’s involvement in Vietnam disappointed Kennedy. Kennedy respected Johnson’s
domestic policies, but he could not stand for a war which was costing countless American lives.
By diverting his energies from social and domestic issues, to Johnson left a large hole to be filled
at home. Kennedy chose to fill that hole because of what he saw while campaigning in the innercities. Kennedy look to build on his brother’s New Frontier and continue some of the social
policies of Johnson’s Great Society. It is rather funny to think that if Johnson begged Kennedy to
stay as Attorney General, or offered him a spot on his 1964 presidential ticket, or if they simply
had a better relationship Kennedy may have never become a Senator or see and interact with the
urban poor. It is true that Kennedy favored and worked on major civil rights measures as
Attorney General, but it was during his time as Senator, after Johnson turned his focus away
from domestic issues and towards Vietnam and reelection, that Kennedy started to support
comprehensive and complex reform such as urban renewal, job creation, crime prevention, and
healthcare.
84
David M. Oshinsky, “Fear and Loathing in the White House.”
19
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