Bullying and Antisocial
Behavior:
Analysis of Bullying
Research and Recommended
Practices
Richard P. West Ph.D.
Executive Director
Center for the School of the Future
Utah State University
What Problems do We Face
in Today’s Schools
• Problem behavior in schools is increasing in frequency and
intensity.
• School-wide discipline systems are unclear and
inconsistently implemented.
• Educators rely on reactive and crisis management
interventions to solve chronic behavior problems.
• Teachers are being asked to do more with less, and to teach
when students display severe problem behavior.
• Students have limited structured opportunities to learn
social skills and to receive feedback on their use of these
social skills.
• Alternative placements are becoming more difficult to find.
Sugai, 1997
THE GOOD OLD DAYS?
“The world is too big for us. Too much is going
on. Too many crimes, too much violence and
excitement. Try as you will, you get behind in
the race in spite of yourself. It is an incessant
strain to keep pace, and still you lose ground.
Science empties its discoveries on you so fast
you stagger beneath them in hopeless
bewilderment. Everything is high-pressure.
Human nature can’t endure much more.”
Editorial in the Atlantic Journal, June 16, 1833.
Bullying
“Bullying occurs when a student or group of
students targets an individual repeatedly
over time, using physical or psychological
aggression to dominate the victim”
(Hoover & Oliver, 1996; Rigby, 1995; USDOE, 1998)
Bullying can contribute to an environment of fear
and intimidation in schools
(Arnette & Walsleben, 1998; Ericson, 2001)
BULLYING: Key Features
• Intent to harm
• Repeated
harmful acts
• Power
imbalance
between bully
and victims
What Does it Look Like?
• Physical aggression
(e.g. fighting, etc.)
• Relational aggression
(e.g. social exclusion, injuring the
reputation of another person)
• Verbal harassment or
intimidation
(e.g. threats, psychological intimidation)
• Cyber-bullying
(e.g. insulting websites, embarrassing
photos posted online, text messages)
Some Data
• 160,000 students miss school every day due to fear of
attack or intimidation by a bully (Fried & Fried, 1996)
• Approximately 20 percent of students report being
scared throughout much of the school day (Garrity, et al.,
1997)
• 60% of boys who were bullies in middle school had at
least one criminal conviction by the age of 24 (Olweus,
1993)
• Bullying is the best predictor of adult criminality
(Silvernail, Thompson, Yang, & Kopp, 2000)
Who are the Bullies?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Poorer academic skills and grades
Lacking in empathy
Cognitive distortions
Belief that aggression solves problems
Increased risk for substance abuse &
later criminal behavior
Increasingly unpopular with peers as
they get older
Come from coercive/aggressive
homes
Inconsistent & ineffective discipline
Physically larger, especially in early
grades
Who are the Victims?
• Physically smaller or
weaker
• Anxious, fearful, insecure,
depressed, poor selfesteem
• School avoidance, including
dropping out
• More likely to bring
weapons to school for
revenge
VIOLENCE
“A disturbing element of some high profile
school shootings in the United States
during the past few years has been that
some of these youthful shooters were
repeat victims of bullying and peer
harassment, were unpopular, and they
ultimately went on a shooting spree as a
way of exacting revenge”.
Merrell, Gueldner, Ross, & Isava (in press) School Psychology Quarterly
School Bullying
Bullying is one form of
violence that seems to
have increased in recent
years, although it is not
clear if the increase
reflects more incidents of
bullying at school or
perhaps greater awareness of bullying as a
problem.
US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey, Indicators of School Crime
and Safety, 2003, NCES
Rates of Bullying and Other
School Discipline Problems
Student bullying is one of the
most frequently reported
discipline problems at
school: 26% of elementary
schools, 43% of middle
schools, and 25% of high
schools reported problems
with bullying in 1999-2000
US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, School Crime Supplement to the
National Crime Victimization Survey, Indicators of School Crime and Safety, 2003, NCES
Middle Schools
Bullying occurs at all ages,
“but tends to peak during the
middle school years”
Hazler, 1996; Rios-Ellis, Bellamy, & Shoji, 2000
Bullying: Recent Trends
• In recent years, fewer
than 1 in 10 students
reported they had
been bullied at school
in last 6 months.
• Although percentages
increased from 1999
(5%) to 2001 (8%), no
differences were
detected between
2001 and 2003
NOTE: In the 1999 survey, “at school” was defined as in the school building, on the school grounds, or on a
school bus. In the 2001 and 2003 surveys, “at school” was defined as in the school building, on school
property, on a school bus, or going to and from school. See appendix A for more information.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, School Crime Supplement (SCS) to the
National Crime Victimization Survey, 199, 2001, and 2003.
Recent Data: Further Analysis
• White students were
more likely than
Hispanic students to
report being bullied
(8% to 6%)
• Grade level is
inversely related to
bullying
NOTE: “At School” was defined as in the school building, on school property, on a school bus, or going to and from
school.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, School Crime Supplement (SCS) to the National
Crime Victimization Survey, 2003.
• Public school
students more likely to
be bullied than private
Boys vs. Girls
• Both boys and girls bully; some research
indicates that boys bully more often, but this may
have to do with how bullying is defined.
• Boys tend to use more physical aggression while
bullying by girls often takes the form of teasing
and social exclusion (Hoover & Oliver, 1996)
Are Bullying Prevention and
Intervention Programs
Effective?
“Although anti-bullying interventions appear to be
useful in increasing awareness, knowledge, and
self-perceived competency in dealing with bullying,
it should not be expected that these interventions
will dramatically impact the incidence of actual
bullying and victimization behaviors, or that they will
positively impact even a majority of the targeted
outcomes. In fact, our evidence indicates that the
majority of targeted outcomes in school bullying
interverventions may not be significantly impacted,
either positively or negatively”.
Merrell, Gueldner, Ross, & Isava (in press) School Psychology Quarterly
Bullying is a
symptom of a much
larger problem of
antisocial behavior
Antisocial Behavior
• Recurrent violations of socially
prescribed patterns of behavior
• Hostility, aggression, defiance,
willingness to violate rules
• Aversive to others
• Deviation from accepted rules and
expected standards
• Deviance across a range of settings
Antisocial Behavior
Facts and Findings
• Involves more boys than girls
• Identified at 3 or 4 years of age
• Early antisocial behavior predicts adolescent
delinquency
• Antisocial behavior persisting beyond third
grade is chronic problem
• Antisocial children are at risk for long term
problems
• 70% of youth arrested within 3 yrs. of leaving
school
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Index crimes include murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Utah's total
index crime rate in 2004 was 4,322, a 4.1% decrease over the 2003 rate of 4,506. Utah's rate has paralleled the national rate
over the past 40 years. In 2001, Utah's rate was marginally higher than the national rate, a gap that is widening through 2003
and 2004. Utah's higher than average larceny rate, which accounts for nearly three-quarters of the total index crime rate, drives
our total rate higher than the national rate.
Common Individual and System
Responses
to Problem Behavior
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Clamp down on rule violators
Extend continuum of aversive consequences
Improve consistency of use of punishment
Establish “bottom line”
In-school suspension
Zero tolerance policies
Security guards, student uniforms, metal detectors,
surveillance cameras
• Suspension/Expulsion
• Exclusionary options (e.g. Alternative programs)
According to Research, the LEAST
EFFECTIVE responses to problem
behavior are:
• Counseling
• Psychotherapy
• Punishment (Gottfredson,1997; Lipsey, 1991; Lipsey & Wilson, 1993; Tolan & Guerra, 1994)
• Exclusion is the most common response for conductdisordered, juvenile delinquent, and behaviorally
disordered youth (Lane & Murakami, 1987) but it is largely
ineffective.
Why Then, Do We Educators,
Resource Officers, and Counselors
Employ These Procedures?
When WE experience aversive situations,
we select interventions that produce
immediate (rather than sustained) relief.
We tend to focus on our concerns, not the
student’s.
–
–
–
–
Remove the student.
Remove ourselves.
Modify the physical environment.
Assign responsibility for change to student
&/or others.
What results from these responses?
• Punishing problem behaviors without a school-wide
system of support is associated with increased…
– aggression
– vandalism
– truancy
– tardiness
– dropping out (Mayer, 1995; Mayer & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1991)
• Fosters environments of control
• Occasions & reinforces antisocial behavior
• Shifts ownership away from school
• Weakens child-adult relationship
• Weakens relationship between academic & social
behavior programming
Gallup survey on work satisfaction
For Employees

I know what is expected of me at
work.

I have the materials and equipment I
need to do my job right.

In the last seven days, I have
received recognition or praise for
doing good work.

My supervisor or someone at work,
seems to care about me as a
person.

There is someone at work who
encourages my development.

The mission/purpose of my
company makes me feel my job is
important.
What if We Reword it for Students
•
I know what is expected of me at
school.
•
I have the academic and social
skills I need to succeed.
•
At school today, I received
recognition or praise for doing
good work or behaving
appropriately.
•
My teacher or someone at school
seems to care about me as a
person.
•
There is someone at school who
encourages my development.
•
The mission/purpose of the
school makes my effort seem
important.
“What the Worlds Greatest Managers Do Differently”
-- Buckingham & Coffman 2002, Gallup
Interviews with 1 million workers, 80,000 managers, in 400 companies.
According to Research, the MOST
EFFECTIVE responses to problem
behavior are:
• Social skills training
• Academic and curricular restructuring
• Behavioral interventions
(Gottfredson, 1997; Lipsey, 1991, 1992; Lipsey &
Wilson, 1993; Tolan & Guerra, 1994)
5% of Students
15% of Students
80% of Students
Schimmer & Sugai, Nov. 2003
High Risk
Moderate Risk
Low Risk
Academic Success/Social Competence
1-5%
Specialized Individualized
Systems for Students with
High-Risk Behavior
5-10%
Specialized Group
Systems for Students with AtRisk Behavior
80-90%
Schimmer & Sugai, Nov. 2003
School-/ClassroomWide Systems for
All Students,
Staff, & Settings
Office Referrals
3000
14 per day
2551
2500
11 per day
2000
10 per day
1500
1379
1984
1000
500
0
2001/2002
As of March 24th
2002/2003
2003/2004
Level 1 Violations by Individuals
350
323
300
308
Total
Individuals
250
217
200
150
139
155
121
100
71
53
50
0
5040
44
30
4236
4032
8 8
Tar dies
In subo rd ination
Disr uptive
Be havior
Dr es s Cod e
Sluffing
Har ass ing
Te acher s
Har ass ing
Stu dents
Pr ofanity,
Ges tur es
Lying
Level 2 Violations by Individuals
30
Total
Individuals
27
25
25
25
23
20
15
12 12
10
8 8
7 7
5
0
4 4
0 0
Theft
Fighting/
Assault
Damaging
Property
Endangering
Safety
Controlled
Substance
Threatening
Behavior
Weapons
Total Level 1 Violations by Groups
59%
700
656
41%
600
500
452
25%
400
265
300
200
100
Total
Individuals
6%
67
0
At-Risk Students
All Other Referrals
At-Risk students, in this case, are identified as having 5 or more violations
Level 1 Violations by At-Risk Groups
700
656
600
500
400
300
200
236
142
100
0
Total
Individuals
278
6
Twenty
Plus
18
Ten Plus
43
Five Plus
67
Total
Violations by Location
Bus
2%
Outside
8%
Cafeteria
3%
Hallways
19%
Commons
1%
Classroom
(excluding
tardies)
67%
Categories of
Risk and Protective Factors
1. Individual
2. Peer
3. Family
4. Community
5. School
Individual Risk Factors
• Alienation and Rebelliousness
• Favorable Attitudes Toward the
Problem Behavior
• Early Initiation of the Problem
Behavior
• Certain Physical, Emotional or
Personality Traits
• Lack of Social Competence
Individual Protective Factors
• Sense Of Well-Being/Self Confidence
• Negative Attitudes Toward Problem
Behavior
• Positive Future Plans
• Social Competence
Peer Risk Factors
• Friends Who Engage in the Problem
Behavior
• Less Involved in Recreational, Social
and Cultural Activities
Peer Protective Factors
• Bonding To Pro-Social Culture
• Youth Involvement In Alternative
Activities
Family Risk Factors
•
•
•
•
Family History With Problem Behavior
Family Management Problems
Family Conflict
Favorable Parental Attitudes or Involvement in
Problem Behavior
• Family Members Don't Spend Much Time Together
• Lack Of Parental Supervision
• Lack Of Clear Expectations, Limits And
Consequences
Family Protective Factors
•
•
•
•
Close Family Relationships
Consistency Of Parenting
Copes With Stress In A Positive Way
Education Is Valued, Encouraged, And Parents Are
Involved
• Share Family Responsibilities, Including Chores
And Decision Making
• Family Members Are Nurturing And Support Each
Other
• Clear Expectations, Limits And Consequences
Community Risk Factors
• Alcohol And Other Drugs Readily Available
• Laws And Ordinances Are Unclear Or Inconsistently
Enforced
• Norms Are Unclear
• Residents Feel Little Sense Of "Connection" To Community
• Neighborhood Disorganization
• High Mobility
• Extreme Economic Deprivation
• Lack Of Strong Social Institutions
• Lack Of Monitoring Youths' Activities
• Inadequate Media Portrayals
Community Protective Factors
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Community Service Opportunities Available For Youth
Laws And Ordinances Are Consistently Enforced
Informal Social Control
Opportunities Exist For Community Involvement
Positive Relationships with Other Adults Encouraged
Strong Religious or Social Composition
Resources (Housing, Healthcare, Childcare, Jobs,
Recreation, Etc.) Are Available
• Neighbors Share Responsibility for Monitoring Youth
School Risk Factors
• Lack Of Clear Expectations, Both
Academic And Behavioral
• Lack Of Commitment Or Sense Of
Belonging At School
• Academic Failure
• Parents And Community Members Not
Actively Involved
School Protective Factors
• Communicates High Academic And
Behavioral Expectations
• Encourages Goal-Setting, Academic
Achievement And Positive Social
Development
• Positive Attitudes Toward School
• Fosters Active Involvement Of
Students, Parents And Community
Members
Indicators of School Quality
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Things We Can Change
Combine with
Things We Can’t Change
+
Alterable Variables
Unalterable Variables
to Produce…
…Academic Achievement
and
…Social Competence
Web of Causation for
Academic Achievement
Instruction
Academic
Achievement
Web of Causation for
Social Competence
Punishment
Social Competence
Web of Causation for Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attacks)
Taken from Friedman, G. D. (1994).
Primer of Epidemiology (5th Ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill, p.4.
Natural selection of
metabolic adaptation
to starvation
Hereditary
factors
Coronary
artery
distribution
Industrial
society
Social
pressures
Dietary excesses in
saturated fat, cholesterol,
calories, salt
Diabetes or
carbohydrate
intolerance
Hyperlipidemia
Significant
coronary
atherosclerosis
The authors note that “Despite
the apparent complexity of this
diagram, it is undoubtedly an
oversimplification and will
certainly be modified by further
study.” (p. 5).
Personality &
emotional
stress
Obesity
Hypertension
Cigarette
smoking
Increased
catecholamines
Deficiency in
collateral
circulation
Myocardial
susceptibility
Coronary
occlusion
Myocardial
infarction
Lack of
exercise
Thrombotic
tendency
The Indicators of School Quality
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Parent Support
Teacher Excellence
Instructional Quality
School Leadership
Student Commitment
School Safety
Resource Management
Areas of Risk
1. Home Language “Is English the primary language spoken at home?”
2. Neighborhood Stability “Have you moved more than once in the
past three years?”
3. Peer Associations “Do you generally approve of your child’s closest
friends?”
4. Family Bonding
“Do your neighbors generally monitor their children’s activities?”
5. Community Affiliation “Do you regularly attend community, social,
or religious meetings?”
6. Academic Status “Do you have a high school diploma/GED?”
7. Economic Status “Do you have Internet access at home?”
ISQ and Academic
Achievement
• The variables measured by
ISQ account for more than
80% of the variance of
academic achievement
scores
• Even when “risk” is removed
from the equation, the
correlations between ISQ
variables and achievement
are statistically significant
Hierarchy of Risk
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Economic Status
Community Affiliation
Family Bonding
Neighborhood Stability
Academic Status
Home Language
Peer Associations
Of
schools
found
to be
at-ris k
for…
Econo mi c Status
Comm unit y Affili ation
Famil y Bonding
Mobilit y
Academic Status
Home Langu age
Peer Acceptance
ES
----85
96
94
100
100
100
% of them t hat is als o at-risk for…
CA
FB
M
AS
HL
PA
60
45
25
8
7
2
----61
35
11
10
3
91 ----39
17
15
4
90
68 ----29
26
7
100
100
100 ----89
22
100
100
100
100 ----25
100
100
100
100
100 -----
Relationship between Risk and Academic Achievement
(Indicators of School Quality- ISQ)
Overall Risk
60
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40
20
0
Low Risk
Moderate Risk
High Risk
3rd
5th
8th
11th
59
44
24
58
42
20
57
45
17
57
43
25
Recent research has shown that the risk of youth
developing patterns of various types of antisocial
behavior, including the use of alcohol and other
drugs, aggressive and violent behavior, and gang
activity, can be lessened by developing certain
protective assets and skills.
These include social and self-management skills,
academic proficiency including reading, and
improved relationships with family members and
school personnel (Gardner & Resnick, 1996;
Hawkins & Catalano, 1992; Schorr, 1988; West,
Young, Mitchem & Calderella, 1998).
Parent Support
1. Student achievement related to parent support is
not limited to the early years, but is significant at all
ages and grade levels.
2. Children of involved parents achieve more,
regardless of socioeconomic status, ethnic/racial
background, or the parents’ education level.
3. Children of involved parents have higher grades,
test scores and better attendance, and they are
more likely to graduate from high school and have
greater enrollments in post-secondary education.
Parent Support
4. When it comes to student behavior, children
of involved parents exhibit more positive
attitudes and behavior.
5. Children of involved parents have fewer
instances of alcohol use, violence, and
antisocial behavior.
Nine Contextual Factors that Contribute
to Punitive School Environments and
Promote Antisocial Behavior
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Low student involvement in school activities
Unclear rules for student deportment
Weak or inconsistent administrative support
Student academic failure
Student deficiency in social & personal management
skills
Problems discriminating prosocial & antisocial
behavior
Consequences delivered inconsistently
Inadvertent reinforcement of antisocial behavior
Over reliance on punitive methods of control
(Mayer, 1995; Similar to
home-based contextual factors noted by Loeber, Stouthammer-Loeber & Green, 1987 and Reid & Patterson, 1991)
Assessing School Conditions
and Actions
•
Inspect evidences
–
–
–
–
–
Be specific
Look carefully, review relevant history
Be honest
Compile evidences
Assign rating (can be done in a group)
1. Generally meet the standard (no “contraevidences” or only 1 or 2 at most)
2. Occasionally meet the standard (several
“contra-evidences”)
3. Rarely meet the standard (occasional
“evidences”)
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Clear Communication of Expectations for Performance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
A well-written set of behavioral standards and expectations
exists at this school
The set of expectations is short (generally from 5 to 7 items)
Students were involved in the development, refinement, and
communication of the standards of behavior
The behavioral expectations are statements of how to
behave well, rather than what not to do
Behavioral expectations are posted prominently throughout
the school
Behavioral expectations are emphasized in each classroom
(e.g. explicitly taught, reminded, and encouraged)
Students are able to remember and repeat statements of
behavioral expectations
Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001) California State University,Los Angeles
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Relationships and Bonding
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Strong administrative support for staff exists (e.g. good teaching is
recognized, faculty requests are acted upon promptly)
Strong staff support for one another exists (e.g. staff confer with
one another regarding instruction and discipline)
Staff greet and help students feel welcome in the classroom
Staff interact with and show interest in students in various settings
Staff have many more positive than negative interactions with
students
Students generally comply willingly with staff requests and
instructions
Students tend to “hang around” staff, engaging in conversations,
etc.
Staff are really well acquainted with each and every student, and are
familiar with students’ personal characteristics, attributes, and
challenges
Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001) California State University,Los Angeles
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Skill-Building Emphasis: Academic, Social,
and Self-Management Skills
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
The school assumes responsibility for learning of academic skills
Curriculum in all areas is organized to emphasize active rather than
passive responding, with many tailored opportunities for all students
to respond
Academic assignments are adjusted to students’ functional levels
Sufficient additional academic support is provided to struggling
students
The school assumes responsibility for learning of social skills
Social skills are identified and taught effectively emphasizing
fluency and generalized performance in natural settings
Failure to meet high expectations of performance is followed by
individual intensive teaching rather than punishment
Students receive explicit instruction and support in selfmanagement
Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001) California State University,Los Angeles
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Recognition of Appropriate Behavior
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Recognition is provided by the administration to students
who meet the behavioral expectations
Recognition is provided by classroom teachers to students
who meet the behavioral expectations
All students receive frequent and appropriate recognition
for their accomplishments and efforts to meet high
standards of good behavior
At-Risk students receive more frequent and personalized
(tailored) recognition for their efforts to meet high standards
and expectations (in both academic and deportment)
Evidences exist in this school of efforts to pay more
attention to good behavior and success than to problem
behavior and mistakes
Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001), California State University,Los Angeles
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS
“It appears that changing these identified
contextual factors not only can help
prevent antisocial behavior, but also can
help to create an environment more
conducive to learning”
G. Roy Mayer (2001)
California State University,Los Angeles
Achieving the Support of
Parents
• Effective & Professional Communication
– Communication to families is timely
– Communication to families is culturally
sensitive
– Communication to families is professional
Achieving the Support of
Parents
• Professional Atmosphere at School
– School staff members project a positive
school image
– Visitors to the school know where to go and
with whom to initiate contact
– Parent/Teacher conferences respect the
parents
– Extracurricular events are well-managed
and safe
– Transportation activities are well
supervised
Achieving the Support of
Parents
• Supporting Parents as First Educators
in the Home
– Parents know what is expected of them as
first educators in the home
– Parents are provided resources to succeed
as educational role models
– Parents are rewarded for their support
Positive Behavior Support
(PBS)
Positive behavior support is an
approach for teaching children
appropriate behavior and providing
the supports necessary to sustain
that behavior.
PBS is
• Not a specific practice or
curriculum…it’s general approach to
preventing problem behavior.
• Not limited to any particular group of
students…it’s for all students.
• Not new…it’s based on long history of
behavioral practices and effective
instructional design and strategies.
Four principles or
components of our version
of PBS
1.
2.
3.
Communicate high academic and behavioral
expectations to students
Encourage positive relationships with adults
Emphasize goal-setting, academic achievement
and positive social development with a teaching
emphasis (with accompanying low tolerances for mistakes and
misbehavior)
4.
Reinforce and strengthen appropriate behavior
Focus
Universal
All Students
Clear Communication of
Behavioral Expectations
Relationships and Bonding
Skill-Building Emphasis
•Academic Skills
•Social Skills
•Self-management Skills
Recognition for
Appropriate Behavior
Targeted
At Risk
Rules
Values
Common Language
Instructions
Individual Negotiations
Contracts
System-wide Advisement
Extra-Curricular Programs
Mentoring
Relationship-building
Expectations
Modeling
Practice
Fluency
Evaluation
Planned
And
Opportunistic
Teaching
Praise Notes/Boards
Recognition Programs
Good Behavior Game
Instructive Praise
Social Skills Teaching
Tactics
TEACHING
Planned
Opportunistic
Preparatory
Responsive
Scheduled or Direct Teaching
Teaching Prompts
Instructive Praise
Corrective Teaching
Behavioral Directives
Intensive Teaching (e.g., Physical and Verbal Tracking)
Four-Year Study in Two High-Risk
Middle Schools
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Students made unexpectedly large gains in academic achievement
(nearly one-half standard deviation greater than average
improvement).
Students recorded an average improvement of more than one
standard deviation on teacher ratings of social competence.
Teachers rated students as having achieved significant reductions
in antisocial behavior.
Students noted significant improvements in their own behavior.
Fights and suspensions were reduced by 69%.
Safe school violations were reduced by 77%.
Court referrals were reduced by 84%.
Gang-related activities were reduced by 81%.
(West, Young, Mitchem & Calderella, 1998)
The Matching Law
Cost of Responding
“What We GIVE”
HIGH
“Behavior Occurs When…”
No behavior OR
Behavior Quickly
Extinguishes
(Acquisition Problem)
Satiation, Rewards lose Value,
and Responding is not
Durable
(Production Problem)
LOW
LOW
Reward for Responding
“What We GET”
HIGH
The Horse Whisperer
“I’ve heard you help people with horse problems”
Tom Booker,
The Horse Whisperer
1998
“Truth is, I
help
horses
with
people
problems”
HORSE SENSE?
Many teachers and
administrators believe
their schools need help
with student behavior
problems.
Truth is, our
students need
help with school
problems.