Aircraft
Technology
Evolution
AVIATION
HISTORY
By
Ms. Zuliana
Future
Challenges
Outlines
Part 1: Aircraft Pressurization
Part 2: Flight Instruments
Part 3: Aviation Growth
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Uses of Aircraft
1918 – 1939: World War One Aircraft
1939 – 1945: World War Two Aircraft
1945 – 1991: The Cold War
Part 4: Aviation Future Challenges
Part 1
Why Aircraft need to be
‘Pressurized’?
Definition
‘Cabin Pressurization’
Active pumping of compressed air into an
aircraft cabin when flying at high altitude in
order to increase the air pressure within
the cabin.
Why Aircraft needs to be
‘Pressurized’?
To provide the crew and passengers a
safe & comfortable environment.
Pressurized means maintains a constant
pressure even aircraft flying in high
altitude.
At higher altitude (> 3000m), the outside
atmospheric pressure is very low.
Risks of unpressurized aircraft
Hypoxia:
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Lacks of oxygen
Crew/passengers can loss their consciousness.
Altitude sickness:
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Increase in the blood pH
Crew/passengers may experience fatigue, nausea, headaches &
sleeplessness.
Decompression sickness:
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Bubbles in the bloodstream
Crew/passengers may feel tiredness, forgetfulness and can lead
to stroke
Barotrauma:
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Gases trapped within the bodies (middle ear)
Crew/passengers may suffer critical pain
How cabin is pressurized?
1. The design of an airtight fuselage (air can’t pass
through) .
2. A source of compressed air (from a gas turbine engine)
3. Environmental Control System.
Valve controls at rear of fuselage: All exhaust air is
dumped to atmosphere.
Pilot can change cabin pressure through this valve.
Part 2:
Aircraft Flight Instruments
Definition
‘Flight Instruments’
The instruments that used for displaying/
controlling the attitude (orientation) of the
aircraft during flight.
 Examples: altitude, airspeed, magnetic
direction/heading
Definition
Since the instrumentation and equipment
of aircraft mostly use the electronic
circuit/part, they are called Avionics
The shorthand for Aeronautical or Aviation
Electronics
The needs of flight instruments
For safety and reliable operation
The first aircraft instruments is fuel & oil pressure
instruments
 To warn of engine trouble so that the aircraft could be
landed before engine failed).
As aircraft could fly over considerable distances weather
became a problem.

Instrument systems were developed to fly through
bad weather conditions.
Speed, distance, altitude, attitude, direction, temperature
and pressure are measured and the measurements are
displayed on display panel in the cockpit
Aircraft Instrument Panel of Cessna
Aircraft Instrument Panel of Boeing
737-400
Six Basic Instruments
Airspeed Indicator
Turn Indicator
Attitude Indicator
Altitude Indicator
Heading
Indicator
Vertical Speed Indicator
1.Airspeed Indicator
To shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air.
The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air density (which
varies with altitude, temperature and humidity) in order to obtain the
true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the speed
over the ground.
2. Attitude Indicator
To show the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon.
From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are leve or
notl and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below
the horizon.
This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is
also useful in conditions of poor visibility.
3. Altimeter
To indicate the vertical distance (height) of
the airplane above ground level.
Drum and single pointer
Altimeter Indicator
Digital Altimeter Indicator
3. Altimeter
There are two kinds of the altimeter used on an aircraft:
the barometric altimeter
the radar/ radio altimeter.
Barometric Altimeter
 Uses the atmosphere characteristic “air pressure
decreases with the increasing altitude“.
Radar/Radio Altimeter
 Uses the sound/electro magnetic wave to measure
the vertical distance of the airplane
4. Heading Indicator
To displays aircraft heading with respect to
geographical north.
5. Turn Indicator
To display direction of turn and rate of turn : ex.
direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling.
6.Vertical Speed Indicator
To display the vertical speed of the aircraft (rate of
climb or descent in feet per minute, meters per
second or knots)
This instrument senses changing air pressure.
Magnetic Compass
The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative
to magnetic north.
For purposes of navigation it may be necessary to
correct the direction indicated (which points to a
magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of true
north or south (which points to the earth's axis of
rotation).
Flight Deck of Modern Aircraft
B 777 Flight Deck
A 320 – Flight Deck
Glass Cockpit History
1970: NASA conducted research on flight instruments
displays
1982: The success of the NASA-led glass cockpit work is
reflected in the total acceptance of electronic flight
displays in Boeing 767.
By the end of the 1990s, LCD display panels were
increasingly favored among aircraft manufacturers
because of their efficiency, reliability and legibility.
Nowadays, Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 777,
Boeing 787, and Boeing 747-400, Boeing 767-400ER,
Airbus A320 family (enhanced version), Airbus A330,
Airbus A340 , Airbus A380 and Airbus A350 are fitted
with glass cockpits consisting of liquid crystal display
(LCD) units
Glass Cockpit in Airbus A380
Glass Cockpit Components
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS):
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Displays all information regarding the aircraft’s situation,
position and progress.
Comprising left- and right-side primary flight display
(PFD) and navigation display screens
EFIS primarily covers horizontal and vertical position,
but also indicates time and speed.
EICAS (Engine Indications and Crew Alerting
System) or ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitor)
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Comprising over-and-under center display screens,
shows the aircraft’s systems conditions and engines
performance.
Part 3
Aviation Growth
Uses of aircraft
Military aircraft
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Fighters and bombers (shooting, combat)
Search and rescue, reconnaissance (spying), observation
transport, and tanker aircraft among others.
Commercial aircraft
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Scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying both passengers
and cargo.
The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to as
airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft.
Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and
some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.
Uses of aircraft
General aviation
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Business jets , trainers, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds,
firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports.
Private aviation
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Light passenger, business, or recreational types, and are usually owned
or rented by the pilot.
The same types may also be used for a wide range of commercial
tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight
transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations.
Experimental aircraft
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Experimental aircraft are one-off specials, built to explore some aspect
of aircraft design and with no other useful purpose. The Bell X-1 rocket
plane, which first broke the sound barrier in level flight, is a famous
example.
World War One (WW1) Aircrafts
(1919-1938)
Before WW1, the 1st country to use planes for military purposes was
Bulgaria, whose planes attacked the Ottoman positions during the
First Balkan War 1912-1913.
During WW 1 (1919-1938): Several pilots became famous for their
air to air combats, the most well-known is Red Baron, who shot
down 80 planes in air to air combat with several different planes.
Fokker Dr.I replica at the ILA 2006, the "Red Baron" triplane
Years between WWI and WWII
Large advancement in aircraft technology.
Wood and canvas converts to aluminium.
Engine development :
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In-line water cooled gasoline engines convert to rotary air cooled engines
(increase propulsive power).
In the 1930’s jet engine began.
After WWI, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their
new skills.
Many American pilots flying into small towns across the country and
showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers
for rides.
Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races and
acrobatic stunts.
World War Two (WW2) (1939-1945)
Aircrafts
World War II: Drastic increase of aircraft
development and production.
All countries involved in the war stepped
up production and development of aircraft
based on weapon delivery systems
(Bombers, Fighters, Reconnaissance,
Transports, Trainers, Communication)
World War Two (WW2) Aircrafts
(1939-1945)
A Supermarine Spitfire was a typical World War II fighter.
Focke-Wulf Fw 190
The Cold War (1945 – 1991)
Most ex-military aircraft were used in the business of transporting
people and goods.
Many companies existed, with routes that criss-crossed North
America, Europe and other parts of the world.
Heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes (e.g., B-29, Lancaster,
DC-3) easily converted into commercial aircraft
By 1952, the British state airline introduced into service the first jet
airliner, the De Havilland Comet (the plane suffered a series of
highly public failures)
Other jet airliner designs Boeing 707 -comfortable, higher safety and
meet passenger expectations.
In October of 1947, Chuck Yeager took the rocket powered Bell X-1
past the speed of sound (1st controlled, level flight to cross the
sound barrier).
The Cold War (1945 – 1991)
Further barriers of distance were eliminated in 1948 and 1952 as the
first jet crossing of the Atlantic occurred and the first nonstop flight to
Australia occurred.
In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an airplane at 4,534
mph or Mach 6.1 (7,297 km/h).
1969, Boeing came out with its vision for the future of air travel
(Boeing 747). This plane is still one of the largest aircraft ever to fly,
and it carries millions of passengers each year.
Commercial aviation progressed even further in 1976 as British
Airways provide supersonic service across the Atlantic (Concorde).
A few years earlier the SR-71 Blackbird had set the record for
crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours.
Lockheed SR71 Blackbird
Fastest in 1989
Now retired
Part 4
Assignment Tips
ASSIGNMENT QUESTION
FOR AVIATION HISTORY
Aviation has progressed so fast since the Wright Brothers first flew in
1902. Airline aircrafts have become faster and more economical to
operate; and from single aisle to wide cabin and from canvas to
composite and from subsonic to supersonic and single to double
deck and from mechanical instruments to glass cockpit etc. Explain
what are the future challenges that the civil aviation would face.
All assignments must have font 12, not be more than 15 pages at 1.5 line spacing.
Provide table of content and bibliography at the end of the end of the assignments
together with the declaration format. No plagiarism, therefore those with duplicated
assignments will be penalised. Deadline: 15 October 2009 (Thursday) at 5.30pm.
Delay penalty: one mark each day.
35
Challenges to Civil
Aviation
World Civil Aviation
Growing at a fast rate.
Countries like India, China and Middle East
are expanding their civil aviation
Globalization has made the world smaller due
the increase presence of aviation.
People are moving across boarders a very
fast mode.
Many nations will liberalize the aviation
industry meaning any airlines can enter their
countries
Future Challenges
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Competition
Environmental: Pollution
Economical: Fuel price problem
Safety
Trained staff
Airways congestion
Challenges – Very Intense
Competition
Within a nation
Like Air Asia and MAS
Within a region
Like MAS, SIA and Cathay Pacific
Price war reducing the industry value and
companies profits
Airlines may go bankrupt and close down
Challenges – Fuel Price
World wide oil is getting depleted by the days
Demand of oil increases by high rate due to
increase in other industries and civil aviation.
Costs of searching of oils have gone up especially
in deep seas.
Due geopolitical situation (like wars) oil price may
fluctuate as high a $140 per barrel (2008)
Aircraft only uses oil to generate energy. It has to
alternative sources.
When this happens most airlines suffer losses to
increase in fuel costs.
Challenges - Pollution
More and more nations are getting pollution
conscious
The people insist on noise and warm ozone
free area.
Aircraft manufacturers have problems in
meeting these requirements especially with
noise free.
When people opinion gets stronger than the
political masters there will be a curtailment
(reduce in quantity) of civil aviation
movements.
Challenges – Safety
11 Sept in USA incident has changed the world
aviation safety requirements
More and more safety requirements are
implemented preventing people from boarding
aircraft freely.
More states are imposing more stringent rules that
disallow passengers movement – like USA
restricted on Middle East passengers to USA.
More machines and tools need to be developed
and purchased to protect aircrafts.
All these incur costs
Challenges – Trained Staff
As airline goes sophisticated so do the
staff requirements
More skilled pilots and engineers are
needed
These people since operating on the same
types of aircraft are easily attracted to
move away with a better salaries.
Better incentives need to be given and
hence more costs
Challenges – Airways
Congestion
More and more aircraft are flying each day
but the airways remain the same.
Busy airways requires highly careful ATC
and equipment: less accidents will happen
More ATC controls need to be imposed on
airlines at approach and departure that will
render delays.
Delays will increase costs