{ Digging Deeper Into
Argumentation
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Determining a clear structure helps with clarity
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Similarities found between published
engineering reports and traditional Greek and
Roman rhetoric
Classic Oration
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Introduction- exordium
Background- narratio
Lines of Argument- partitio and confirmatio
Alternative Arguments- refutatio
Conclusion- peroratio
Classic Oration
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Gains reader’s interest and willingness to listen
Establishes your qualifications
Common ground
Demonstration of fair and evenhanded attitude
States claim
introduction
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Presents information that is important to
argument
Facts of the case- who, what, when…
Puts the argument into context
background
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Presents good reasons
Logical and emotional appeals
Claim-reason-warrant
Detailed support
Logical reasoning
Factual evidence
lines of argument
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Examination of alternative points of view
Notes advantages and disadvantages and how
these points relate to claims you made
Explains why one view might be better than
another
alternative arguments
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Summarizes entire argument
Elaborates on implications of argument
Makes clear what you want the audience to
think or do
Reinforces credibility
conclusion
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Any argument involves a claim supported by
reasons and evidence.
The Toulmin Model
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A claim is an arguable point. Apply the test of
justification to your claim before including it in an
argument.
One can make a claim about meaning- “Equality does
not mean equal in America. It has specialized
meanings.”
One can make a claim about policy- “Our federal
government should strengthen anti-piracy laws.”
One can make a claim about consequences- “Because
adversity affects many in a positive way, the
challenges in one’s life can lead to an improved
quality of life.”
The Claim
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Knowing that the whole world does not agree
with you, you must not make an absolute
proposition. Seek common ground with your
readers. Foster a degree of trust. Explain
circumstances.
Sometimes, probably, usually, in most cases…
Qualify
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Support claim
Facts, stats
Historical examples
Personal examples
Cultural examples
Literary examples
Reasons/Evidence
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The audience must be able to follow your train
of thinking. This is where a warrant comes it.
To justify your claim, you need to show some
thought process, or analysis.
Warrant
Reason (Because)
So (claim)
(Since) Warrant
Claim-Reason-Warrant
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“Sarah graduated from Camas High School, an
excellent school, therefore she should do well
in college.”
Is this statement
warranted?
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“Sarah graduated from Camas High School, an
excellent school. She had great study habits.
She had a 3.9 GPA and was ranked top 10 in
her class and took upper level classes. Because
of Sarah’s dedication to academics as well as
her involvement in a variety of activities, and
based on the recommendations from teachers,
Sarah seems to be a good candidate for an
esteemed four year college. .”
How about this one?
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Ensures clear, reasonable and carefully
qualified claims.
Provides a framework for argument
Warrants push us to probe the values that
support arguments and to relate to an
audience.
Allow for anticipation of objections and
addressing of those objections.
Why Does This Structure
Work?
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Without tone and voice, you are a robotic
product of public education.
Tone and Voice