Child, Family, School,
and Community
Socialization and Support 6th ed.
Chapter Four
Ecology of Parenting
Parenting
Parenting means
implementing a
series of
decisions about
the socialization
of one’s children.
Definition of Parenting

What one does:
–
–
to enable children to become
responsible, contributing members of
society.
when children cry, are aggressive, lie,
or do poorly in school.
Decisions about
Parenting

Can be confusing because
–
–
–
there is little consensus as to what
children should be like when they grow
up.
there are different opinions on what
parents should do to enable children to
become grown up.
it is bidirectional and dynamic.
An Ecological Model of
Human Development
 Parenting is the
means by which the
family socializes
children.
Macrosystem Influences
on Parenting




Political Ideology
Culture
Socioeconomic Status
Ethnicity/Religion
Political Ideology

Refers to theories pertaining to
government
Influences parenting styles

–

children must be raised to function as
citizens in society
Most traditional societies subscribe to an
aristocratic political ideology
Political Ideology

Autocracy
–

one person has
unlimited power
over others
Democracy
–
those ruled have
power equal to
those who rule:
equality of rights
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Required that
groups be
treated equally
in housing,
education, and
employment.
Culture

Includes
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
knowledge
beliefs
art
morals
law
customs
traditions
acquired by members of a society
Culture

Encompasses
–
–
–
the way people have
learned how to adapt to
their environment
their assumptions about
the way the world is
their beliefs about the
way people should act
Culture and Parenting Goals
LeVine’s universal parenting goals:

–
–
–

ensuring physical health and survival
developing behavioral capacities for
economic self-maintenance
instilling behavioral capacities for
maximizing cultural values such as morality,
prestige, and achievement
Cultures vary in the emphasis they place
on parenting goals as well as in how
they implement them.
Culture, Economics, and
Children’s Behavior


Economics involves the production,
distribution, and consumption of
goods and services.
Does the way a society governs
and supports itself to survive relate
to the way its children are reared?
Whitings’
Socioeconomic Systems
Simple Societies
–
–
Roles clearly
defined
Emphasis on
cooperation to
survive
Complex Societies
–
–
–
–
Occupational
specialization
Class system
Centralized
government
Competition
emphasized
Categories of Children’s Social
Behavior

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
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

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
Nurturance
Responsibility
Dependence
Dominance
Sociability
Intimacy
Authoritarianism
Aggressiveness
Whitings’ Conclusions





Nurturance
Responsibility
Success
Authority
Casual intimacy
are types of behavior that are differentially
preferred by different cultures.
– These values are transmitted to the children
before the age of six.
Socioeconomic Status
Rank or position within society based
on social and economic factors
High
Middle
Low
high income
respected occupations
well educated
medium incomes
business workers
decent education
low income
unskilled jobs
poorly educated
Parental Occupations and
Children’s Behavior
Exosystem influence—the parent’s work.
The more complex the society:


–
–
the more roles exist
the more criteria upon which status is based
•
•
•
•
–
income
occupation
education
place of residence
the more complex the task of socialization
Middle vs. Lower Class
Occupations

Lower Class Parents
–

Likely to judge their children’s behavior in
terms of its immediate consequences and
its external characteristics.
Middle Class Parents
–
More concerned with their children’s
motives and the attitudes their behavior
seem to express.
Ethnicity/Religion
Impact people’s values, perceptions,
attitudes, and behavior.
Ethnicity


–

Identified by national origin, culture,
language, race, or religion.
Religion
–
A unified system of beliefs and practices
relative to sacred things.
Group Values Categorized by
Customs and Traditions of
Ethnicity and Religion

Gemeinschaft
Groups:
–
–
–
–
Communal
Cooperative
Intimate
Informal

Gesellschaft
Groups:
–
–
–
–
Associative
Practical
Objective
Formal
Family Group Values:
Gemeinschaft vs. Gesellschaft

Gemeinschaft Families:
–
–

Cooperative/interdependent (collectivism).
Emphasize interdependent relations, social
responsibilities, and the well-being of the group.
Gesellschaft Families:
–
–
Competitive/independent (individualism).
Emphasize individual fulfillment and choice
(standing out).
Orientations
Cooperative/Interdependent
(Collective)
Competitive/Independent
(Individualistic)
Authority Roles
Communication
Displays of Emotion
Discipline/Guidance of Children
Skills Emphasis
Chronosystem Influences on
Parenting
 Significant forces isolating the family:
– Occupational mobility
– Breakdown of the neighborhood
– Separation of residential from business areas
– Consolidated school districts
– Separate patterns of social life
– Delegation of child care to outside institutions
– Lack of a support system
Historical Trends

–

–
–
–
–
Pre-eighteenth century
Children were considered significant only if they
contributed to their elder’s welfare.
Eighteenth century (Colonial America)
Families were autocratic
Tradition and religion influenced child-rearing
practices
Early childhood was viewed “as a negative period of
life…” during which time parents had great influence
over their children’s social outcomes.
The eighteenth century brought about the ideas of
many different philosophers (advocated humanism).
•
•
•
John Locke—child’s mind as a blank slate (tabula rasa)
Jean Rousseau—children needed freedom to grow
Johann Pestalozzi—mother as the child’s first teacher
 Nineteenth Century
– G. Stanley Hall influenced many contemporary
attitudes on child development and parenting
(individual needs and welfare of the child).
 Twentieth century
– In 1914, child-rearing literature advocating rigid
scheduling.
– John B. Watson’s theory of behaviorism, which
involved conditioning, became popular during
the 1920’s, along with Sigmund Freud’s theory
of personality development, which involved
unconscious motives.
– The 1940’s brought a change from rigid scheduling;
Benjamin Spock advocating self-regulation of the child.
– The 1950’s brought about an emphasis on children’s
intellectual development. Jean Piaget’s theories on
cognitive development (construction of knowledge) were
of great importance to professionals working with
children.
The trend in parenting attitudes in the
United States over time has swung from
parent-centeredness to child-centeredness
to more of a balanced approach.
Family Dynamics
 Parenting involves a continuous process
of reciprocal interaction that affects both
parents and children.
 When individuals become parents, they
rediscover some of their own experiences.
 Characteristics of children that influence
family dynamics and parenting styles
– Age
– Temperament
– Gender
– Special needs
Age
 As children get older, parent-child
interactions change.
– Infancy = feeding, changing, bathing,
comforting
– Preschool years = reasoning, instruction,
isolation, withdrawal of privileges,
reinforcement, rewards
– Adolescence = discussion, collaborative
problem solving, compromise
Temperament

The combination of innate characteristics that
determine individuals’ sensitivity to various
experiences and responsiveness to patterns of social
interaction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Activity level
Rhythmicity
Distractibility
Approach/withdrawal
Adaptability
Attention span and persistence
Intensity of reaction
Threshold of responsiveness
Quality of mood
Goodness of Fit
 The accommodation of parenting styles to
children’s temperaments (Thomas and
Chess)
– Easy children = adapt well to various styles of
child rearing
– Slow-to-warm-up = do best with a moderate
amount of encouragement coupled with
patience
– Difficult children = need consistent, patient,
and objective parents who can handle their
instability
Family Dynamics cont.
 Gender
– Parents provide different socializing
environments for boys and for girls, most
likely due to their own socialization.
– Play activities differ for boys and for girls.
 Presence of a special need
– Special needs and disabilities influence family
dynamics and parenting styles.
– Reactions vary enormously.
Family Characteristics
 Family dynamics and parenting styles are
influenced by:
– size (number of siblings)
– configuration (birth order, spacing, gender)
– parents’ stage of life
– marital quality
– ability to cope with stress
Size and Configuration
 Both parents and children are affected by
the number of children in the family.
 The more children there are
– the more family members interact
– the less likely parent-child interactions occur
 The spacing and gender of the siblings
influence parent-child interactions.
– With each birth comes different temperaments.
Parents’ Life Stage, Marital Quality,
and Ability to Cope with Stress

Parents go through six stages of change:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Image making
Nurturing
Authority
Interpretation
Interdependence
Departure
Stressors outside the family disrupt the
parent-child relationship.
Parenting Styles
 Classified by dimensions of:
– Acceptance/responsiveness
(warmth/sensitivity)
Give affection, provide encouragement, sensitive
– Demandingness/control
(permissiveness/restrictiveness)
Set rules, monitor compliance
Microsystem Influences:
Between Parent and Child
 Attachment is an affectional tie that one person
forms to another.
 Self-regulation is bringing one’s emotions,
thoughts, and/or behavior under control.
 Prosocial behavior refers to actions that benefit
another person.
 Competence involves behavior that is socially
responsible, independent, friendly, cooperative,
dominant, achievement oriented and purposeful.
 Achievement motivation is to approach
challenging tasks with confidence of mastery.
Parenting Styles

Three dimensions or
degrees:
1. Authoritative (democratic)
2. Authoritarian (parentcentered)
3. Permissive (child-centered)

Other dimensions:
–
Uninvolved (disengaged)
Parents never simply fit into one category,
they are a mixture.
Attachment
 An outcome of sensitive, responsive
caregiving.
 “The Strange Situation” showed:
Secure
Insecure
Secure
Resistant
Avoidant
Disorganized/disoriented
H.O.M.E.
Home Observation for the Measurement of
the Environment, contained 45 items in 6
areas:
1. Emotional and verbal responsiveness
2. Avoidance of restriction and punishment
3. Organization of the physical and temporal
environment
4. Provision of appropriate play materials
5. Parental interaction with the child
6. Opportunities for variety in daily stimulation
Mesosystem Influences:
Between Parent and Others
 The impact of parental socialization
techniques is enhanced by supportive
links with other microsystems, such as the:
– School
• Families’ links to schools via parent education,
parent-teacher conferences, and parental
participation in school activities can have positive
impacts on families.
– Community
• Considered to include social environments outside
the family context of parenting; can be supportive
to help parents cope with stress.
Parenting Practices
Appropriate
Developmental
appropriateness
Guidance
–
–
–
–
Direction
Demonstration
Supervision
Influence
Discipline
– Punishment
– Correction
– Training
Inappropriate
Uninvolved Parenting
– Aloofness
– Distancing
– “At Risk”
Child Maltreatment
–
–
–
–
Intentional harm
Endangerment
Unkindness…
Violence
Child Maltreatment: Abuse and
Neglect
 Abuse is maltreatment involving
assaults:
–
–
–
–
physical
sexual
psychological
emotional
 Neglect is maltreatment involving:
–
–
–
–
–
–
abandonment
lack of supervision or safety
improper feeding
inadequate medical/dental care
inappropriate dress
uncleanliness
Correlates and Consequences
of Child Maltreatment
 Risk factors include
– ongoing (i.e. parental history of being abused)
– transient (i.e. parent’s loss of job)
 Resilient factors include
– ongoing (i.e. child’s easy temperament)
– transient (i.e. improvement in family finances)
The Family and Maltreatment
 Some individuals, because they
themselves have never received
– love, support, guidance
do not know how to provide them to their
own children.
 Many abusers have a family history of
being maltreated.
 They feel:
– unworthy, inadequate, unacceptable
resulting in low self-esteem.
The Child and Maltreatment
 The physical and psychological
characteristics of abused children include:
– crying
– hyperactivity
– inability to give an acceptable response
 Children who are more difficult than
average to care for seem to be the victims
of maltreatment
– i.e. demanding, whiny, weepy, stubborn,
resistive, sickly, negative.
The Community and Maltreatment
 Environmental factors that correlate highly
with abuse are:
– poverty
– unemployment
– social isolation of families
– transient lifestyles
– lack of recognition of children’s rights
– cultural acceptance of corporal punishment
– limited help for families in crises