5 Designing the research
instrument
5 Designing the research
instrument
It is essential that the research
instrument to be employed in a
Focus Assessment Study is precisely
related to the research aims and
objectives. This in turn relates to the
output (report) of the project.
Designing the research instrument
Aim: to identify HIV risk behaviour and factors
affecting it amongst a particular group of drug
users
Research instrument: designed to discover
what risks are being taken and the circumstances
under which they occur
Final report: details of risk behaviours and why
they occur.
Qualitative research
instruments
• designed to facilitate the examination of
the interviewee's world from their point of
view
• give interviewee the opportunity to answer
a question or discuss a theme in depth,
and for the interviewer to ask follow-up
questions
Qualitative research
instruments
too structured
does not allow interviewees to put forward their
own point of view and experiences
too unstructured
may result in too many data that are irrelevant to
the study
Avoid:
Complex and technical language
Multiple questions
'What do you feel about the risks of sharing syringes now as
opposed to five years ago?‘
Leading questions
'Why is there so much prostitution around here?'
Should be: 'Is there any prostitution in this area?' or 'Tell me
about prostitution around here.'
Semi-structured
questionnaire
Interview themes
The list of themes of topics to be covered in a
themed interview should be as short as possible
whilst incorporating all the issues required by the
aims and objectives of the study.
The aim of a themed interview is to elicit in-depth
responses on each theme, and interviewees
should not be interrupted because the list is too
long and the interviewer wants to move onto the
next theme.
Interview themes
Themes may not be addressed in the order in
which they are laid out in the research instrument.
A new theme is introduced in a simple way, such
as 'Let's talk about ..... now' or 'Can I ask you
about ..... now?'
Some themes may not need an introduction as
the interviewee may spontaneously discuss them.
Focus group themes
Observational guide
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Setting
People
Activities
Signs
Acts
Events
Time
Goals
Connections
Pilot the research
instrument to:
• identify any problems such as the wording of
questions, the length of the interview, and whether
the research instrument has been compiled in a
logical fashion
• test the interviewers' / focus group moderators’
ability to administer the research instrument and
indicate whether further training is required.
6 Data collection
Setting
• Where will you conduct interviews or
focus groups?
• How will you arrange the furniture?
• Will you be able to ensure privacy?
Interviewing
Introduction
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time
thanks
refreshments
purpose
confidentiality
anonymity
agreement for tape recording /
purpose of note-taker
Essential skills for
interviewers
1 Trained to conduct interviews
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Role play
Reading transcribed interviews
Listening to / watching interview tapes
Watching more experienced interviewers at
work
Essential skills for
interviewers
2 An understanding of the relevant
research and drug-related issues
•
How interviews fit into the whole project
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Basic concepts related to drug use, drug
services, legal issues
Essential skills for
interviewers
3 Good communication and rapport
•
Show a genuine interest in interviewees
and their responses
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Image management
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Knowledge of local slang
Essential skills for
interviewers
4 Non-judgmental attitude
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Disapproval / approval of responses
Essential skills for
interviewers
5 Ability to observe verbal and non-verbal
cues
What do you do when the interviewee is
bored?
tired?
angry?
upset?
embarrassed?
Essential skills for
interviewers
6 Ability to follow up responses with a
view to exploring emerging issues
whilst adhering to the research
instrument
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Balance between encouraging the interviewee
to talk and discouraging them from giving
information unrelated to the aims of the study.
Essential skills for
interviewers
6 Ability to follow up responses with a
view to exploring emerging issues
whilst adhering to the research
instrument
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Interrupt to move to next question / theme?
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Make connections / recognise contradictions.
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Use non-directive probes.
Examples of
non-directive probes
'Tell me more about...'
'Take me through exactly what happens when you...'
'Can you give me an example of…?'
'Did I understand you correctly when you said...?'
'Can you explain a bit more what you mean by...?'
'Why do you think that is the case?'
'Do you think everyone thinks that?'
Essential skills for
interviewers
7 Ability to adapt to the situation
What do you do if….
an interviewee is under the influence of drugs?
other people come within earshot of the interview?
Essential skills for
interviewers
1 Trained to conduct interviews
2 An understanding of the relevant research and drugrelated issues
3 Good communication and rapport
4 Non-judgmental attitude
5 Ability to observe verbal and non-verbal cues
6 Ability to follow up responses with a view to exploring
emerging issues whilst adhering to the research
instrument
7 Ability to adapt to the situation
Moderating focus groups
The crucial difference between a focus group
and an interview is that group interaction
reduces the data collector's control of the
process: the role of a moderator is not to lead
like an interviewer, but to guide.
Moderating focus groups
• Greet and thank participants
• Refreshments
Introduction
• Purpose
• Confidentiality
• Anonymity
• Agreement for tape recording /
purpose of note-taker
• Ground rules
Moderating focus groups
The focus group moderator's tasks are
to encourage divergent thought,
encourage participants to talk to each
other, and to make the experience
energetic and informal.
Moderating focus groups
To maximise contributions to the discussion,
every participant has to feel that their opinion
matters.
It is possible that there will be one or two
participants who try and dominate the
discussion and one or two who need
encouragement to contribute.
How to encourage
non-contributors
'If you have a different opinion from those you've
heard so far, I want to hear it, because you'll be
representing a sizeable proportion of people out
there who just did not happen to be in this focus
group.'
'Let's hear a different perspective on this from
someone else.'
'I haven't heard from you yet.'
If the discussion falters…
Ask participants to complete sentences such as
'The most dangerous thing about drug use is ...',
'The best way to prevent HIV transmission is ...', 'I
would advise a young person to ...'
Leave the room for a few minutes in order to
encourage participants to talk amongst themselves.
Ask participants what they are not saying.
At the end of the
focus group
• Summarise main points, ask if
participants agree.
• Ask participants how they experienced
the session and if they have any
questions.
• Thank participants and end the session.
• Be the last to leave the room.
Immediately after the focus group
Moderator and note-taker make notes / tape record:
• a description of their impressions of the interaction
between participants
• incidents that hindered or facilitated the discussion
• the general atmosphere of the group
• the extent to which they think the participants 'opened
up.‘
Review note-taker’s notes.
Focus groups:
supplementary questionnaire
To collect structured / sensitive data (age,
gender, educational achievements, drug
use).
Administer before or after focus group?
Recording responses from
interviews and focus groups
• The interviewer or focus group moderator
takes notes of responses and writes them
up more fully after the session?
• A note-taker attends the interview or focus
group?
• The interview or focus group is tape
recorded?
Interviewer or focus group moderator takes
notes of responses and writes them up more
fully after the session
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loss of eye contact
non-verbal cues missed
small cues missed
informant is distracted
signals about which responses are important and
which are not
• informant may try to dictate what is written down
• informant inhibited
• reliant on memory
Use of a note-taker
Avoids some of disadvantages of having
the interviewer or moderator taking
notes, but the note-taker will not be able
to write down every word.
Tape recording
• Use a note-taker to record non-verbal responses and
overall impressions of the session
• Explain tape recorder to interviewees / focus group
participants: stress confidentiality, access to the tape
limited, destroyed after transcription
• Use 2 tape recorders
• Spare batteries
• Good quality machine
• Site of machine
Transcribing tape
recordings
Allocate sufficient human and financial
resources
1 hour tape =
up to 6 hours to transcribe fully
up to 20 A4 sheets of paper in
size 12 font
Transcribing tape
recordings
How much should be
transcribed?
Transcribing tape
recordings of focus groups
• Include non-verbal cues noted by the note-taker
• Try and distinguish between voices
• Indicate speakers’ gender in mixed groups
• Add impressions from note-taker and moderator
Researchers’ fieldnotes
Useful additional data source
Can include:
comments on own feelings during
interviews / focus groups
potentially useful observations about, for
example, the settings in which data
collection took place.
Monitor data collection
Data collectors meet regularly with rest of
research team to discuss:
• experiences in the field
• problems with research instrument
• problems with access
Data storage
• systematic
• secure