Carbon Chemistry…
The works
By: Anushka Rahman
Part #1
C a r b o n s…
Introduction
To understand alkanes and/or alkenes, we
will first have to understand their basic
origins, and how they were made. For that,
we will have to go all the way back to carbons,
because carbons are the nominators in all
living things.
What are carbons?
Carbon is an element, on which the molecules
of life is based. It has many distinctive
properties. It is unique in the variety of
molecules which it can form. The chemistry of
these molecules forms a separate branch of the
subjectORGANIC CHEMISTRY!
*booklet given during class…
Properties of Carbon…
It is a non-mettalic element .
It has a valence of four.
It has many allotropic forms.
It’s atomic number is 6.
It is unreactive under normal circumstances.
It can be found in the form of coal, graphite,
and diamond.
*information retrieved from booklet given during class…
Fact File…
Did you know…
Sixth most common element in the world
Main, amorphous, graphite and diamond
It bonds with itself
6-10 million compounds are known.
Not only carbons can be found in allotropes but
also in isotopes.
Noted from class…
Applications
Crude oil is used by the petrochemical industry to
produce, amongst others, gasoline and kerosene in
refineries.
Crude oil forms the raw material for many synthetic
substances, many of which are collectively called
plastics.
The isotope carbon-14 was discovered on February
27, 1940 and is used in radiocarbon dating.
Diamonds are used as a form if jewelry.
Graphite is combined with clay to form the 'lead' used
in pencils.
* Lutz,
Patricia. "Carbon." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Applications…#2
Graphite is also used as a lubricant and a pigment.
Diamond is used for decorative purposes, and also as
drill bits and other applications making use of its
hardness.
Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron.
Carbon is added to iron to make steel.
Carbon is used as a neutron moderator in nuclear
reactors.
* Lutz,
Patricia. "Carbon." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
How are Carbons related to Alkanes
and Alkenes?
In alkenes and alkenes, a certain amount of
carbon is present. For example, in ethene and
ethane, there are two atoms of carbons
present. In the same way, carbons are present
everywhere.
Part #1
H y d r o C a r b o n s…
What are hydrocarbons?
Hydrocarbons are compounds which consist
only of hydrogen and carbons only.
Hydrocarbons…
Hydrocarbons are part of exothermic reactions.
Hydrocarbons can also exist in all stages of
matter, and so can the allotropes.
Different in structure as well as formulas.
It is the simplest form of carbons.
Notes from class…
Part #2:
Alkanes
What are Alkanes?
Alkanes are chemical compounds that consists
of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Properties of Alkanes
Methane melts at -182.5° C (-296.5° F) and
boils at -161.5° C (-258.7° F).*
The larger the molecule the higher the melting
point.
Hydrocarbons have low densities, often about
0.8 compared to water, 1.0
Alkanes do not have any functional groups.
Alkanes have a low relativity.
The more well-structured the molecules are
the higher the boiling point.
*
*Microsoft ® Encarta ®
2006. © 1993-2005
Microsoft Corporation. All
rights reserved.
Fact File
Did you know…
The parent compound of alkane is methane.
The boiling point can almost correlate to its
molecular weight.
An inconsequential name for alkanes is
‘paraffin’.
Functional groups may increase the densities of
organic compounds to 1.0.
Only a few organic compounds have densities
greater than 1.2 .
Applications
The first four alkanes, Methane, Ethane, Propane, and
Butane are used mainly for heating and cooking
purposes.
Methane and ethane are used in the form of natural
gas.
Alkanes with a chain length of 35 or more, can be used
for road surfacing. An example is bitumen.
Propane and butane are used as liquified pertroleum
gas, and are also used as propellants in aerosol sprays.
Alkanes which are hexadecane and upwards play a
major role in fuel oil and lubricating oil.
Part #3
Halo Alkanes
What are Halo Alkanes?
Chemical series of non metals
Group seven of the periodic table.
These are basically alkanes which also have halogens like
chlorine or fluorine in them.
Takes place
The most widely known group of halogen alkanes are
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
(H3C)3C-OH + HCl.H2O → (H3C)3C-Cl + 2 H2O
CH3-(CH2)6-OH + SOCl2 → CH3-(CH2)6-Cl + SO2 +
HCl.
What is an alkyl group?
Alkyl group- a functional branch or side chain
of carbons.
Hydrogen is an atom. Alkyl group is a small
molecule.
Properties…
Halo alkanes are reactive towards nucleophiles.
Alkyl alkanes can be synthesized from alkanes, alkenes, or
alcohols.
Elimination reactions- using hydroxide and alkenes make halo
alkenes.
3 types of halogen alkanes: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary has one alkyl group other then hydrogen. Secondary has
two, tertiary has three.
Are inert
Break down in the presence of UV rays.
Reacts with dry hydrogen.
Very reactive
Applications…
Propellants in aerosol inhalers for drugs used to
treat asthma.
refrigerants in various home appliances.
insulating foams in packaging materials,
furniture, bedding, and car seats.
Cleaning agents for electronic circuit boards,
metal parts, and dry cleaning processes.
Effect On The World…
CFCs has become a concern which has come to
the attention to nearly the whole world. It is
rapidly increasing the ‘ozone depletion’ situation,
as has added itself to the most hazardous
pollutants in the world .
Part #4
Alkenes
What are Alkenes?
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, and in
the homologous series, they differ by CH2.
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Properties of Alkenes
Alkenes are more reactive then alkanes.
Alkanes do not conduct electricity.
The physical state of alkenes depend on its
molecular mass.
Alkenes are stable compounds.
What is the difference between
Alkanes and Alkenes?
The difference between alkanes and alkenes is
that alkenes are unsaturated, and alkanes are
saturated. This has a series of effects on the
characteristics and reactions of these
elements, and each are different from the
other.
A Comparison…
Alkenes
These have unsaturated
compounds, which enables it
to react with different
elements and compounds.
This is why it can easily
succumb
to
addition
reactions. This makes it
extremely useful in the
industrial world.
Alkanes
These
have
saturated
compounds, which means
that it cannot, unless forced
to, react with other elements
and compounds as easily as
alkenes. It is useful in the
sense that it can be used as a
non-reactive component.
Fact File…
D i d y o u k n o w…
The simplest alkene is ethylene. Commonly known as
ethene.
Alternative names for ‘Alkene’ are ‘Olefin’, or ‘Olefine’.
The physical state of both alkenes and alkanes depend
on its molecular mass.
Hydrocarbons- only contains hydrogen and oxygen
atoms.
Alkene + water= ethanol
Water out of alcohol (dehydrated), can give rise to
alkene.
Part #5:
Al k y n e s
What are Alkynes?
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have at least one
triple covalent bond between two adjacent
carbons.
The general formula for the Alkyne is: CnH2n-2.
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Properties of Alkynes
It is the third homologous series after alkanes.
Alkynes are unstable.
Alkynes are very reactive
They have triple bonds.
Terminal alkynes have one hydrogen atom connected to
the carbon on at least one side of the triple bond.
Example: Methyl acetylene.
Internal alkynes have something other then hydrogen
attached to the hybridized carbons, usually another
carbon atom. Example: 2-pentyne.
Fact File
Did you know…
Alkynes are usually known as acetylenes, or the
acetylene series.
Alkynes are involved in many organic reactions.
Alkynes have fewer hydrogen atoms in alkanes
and alkenes.
Applications
Alkynes burn in oxygen to give a hot and
powerful flame. It is used to weld and cut metal.
Acetylene has a melting point of -81° C (-113.8°
F) and a boiling point of -57° C (-70.6° F).
Dry copper acetylide can be used as an
explosive.
Acetylene is also used in chemical synthesis. It is
used to synthesis vinyl chloride for plastics and
synthetic rubber.
Part #6:
Isomers
What are Isomers?
1. chemically identical molecule with different
structure: each of two or more molecules that have the
same number of atoms but have different chemical
structures and therefore different properties
2. nuclide with different energy state: each of two
or more nuclides that have the same mass number and
atomic number but different energy states and halflives.
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Structural Isomers…
Structural isomers are molecules that have the
same chemical formula, meaning they have the
same atoms in each molecule, but differ in the
order in which the atoms are connected.
* Wood, James L. "Isomer." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Stereo isomers…
1.
Stereo isomers are molecules with the same
chemical formula and the same molecular
structure, but with their atoms arranged
differently within this structure. There are two
types of stereo isomers: optical isomers and
geometric isomers.
Wood, James L. "Isomer." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Optical and Geometric Isomers
Optical isomers are the molecules of one isomer will
rotate the direction of a beam of plane-polarized
light (light that is traveling in the same plane, not in
all directions) in the opposite direction that the other
isomer will.
Geometric isomers are molecules with the same
atomic organization (geometry), but with atoms
placed at different positions of the molecule’s
geometric structure.
Wood, James L. "Isomer." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Part #7:
Chemical Reactions
What is a chemical reaction?
A process that changes the molecular
composition of a substance by redistributing
atoms or groups of atoms without altering the
structure of the nuclei of the atoms.
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Substitution…
When one element, or molecule, replaces
another element by taking it’s place and giving
its own to the replaced element or molecule,
substitution takes place.
H2O + C = CO2 + H (Hydrogen is substituted
by Carbon)
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Bromination…
To treat or combine a substance with bromine or
a bromine compound.
Alkene + Bromine = Alkene is brominated
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Hydrogenation…
To add hydrogen to a compound in a chemical
reaction.
O2 + H = H2O (Hydrogen has been added to
oxygen to form water.)
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Hydration…
A chemical compound containing water
molecules that can usually be expelled by
heating, without decomposition of the
compound.
Sunlight + Carbon Dioxide + Water = Glucose
+ Oxygen
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Dehydration…
The process by which a chemical compound
loses water molecules or the proportion of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms present in water.
Sucrose = Carbon + Water
C12H22O11(s) = 12C + 11H2O
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Class notes…
Fermentation…
The breakdown
microorganisms.
of
Many pharmaceuticals
fermentation.
carbohydrates
by
are
by
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
produced
Anaerobic respiration…
The production of energy without the presence
of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in some yeasts and
bacteria, and in muscle tissue during strenuous
exercise when there is insufficient oxygen.
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Oxidation…
A chemical reaction in which an oxide forms is
called oxidation.
S + O2 = SO2 (Sulfur dioxide is formed when
oxygen is added to Sulfur)
Esterification…
To change or make a substance change into an ester.
For example, esterification of acetic acid in excess
ethanol in the presence of sulfuric acid results in an
ester.
H3C-COOH + HO-CH2-CH3 → H3C-COOCH2-CH3 + H2O (with the presence of conc. sulfuric
acid)
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Notes from class
Part #8:
Alcohols
What is alcohol?
Alcohol is an organic compound containing one
or more hydroxyl groups bound to carbon
atoms.
Hydroxyl group- A group of negative ions
which are formed by the attachment of an
oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom. The
Formula of these ions: OH“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
How is it made?
Alcohol is a colorless liquid, and is produced by
the fermentation of sugar or starch, which is
done by a small single celled fungus named
yeast.
Formula: C2 H5 OH
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
The facts of manufacture…
When sugar is fermented, you get ethanol and
carbon dioxide as natural waste products.
Ethene + steam = 300 degrees, 60 atmospheres,
catalyst-phosphoric acid= ethanol
Best temperature for this process is 37.
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Notes from class…
Properties…
Depending on the number of hydroxyl groups
attached to the molecules OH, they are
classified in the following ways:
Monohydric-one group
Dihydric- two groups
Trihydric- three groups.
“Alcohol." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Properties…#2
They are also a homologous series which are
known as alkanols.
The simplest alcohol contains one carbon atom
and is called methanol.
They react with acids to form esters. These are
similar to inorganic salt.
General formula- CnH2n + 1OH
Notes from class…
Applications…
Beer is made from barley, and contains 4%
alcohol
Wine contains 8% to 14% alcohol.
Ethanol is the only alcohol safe to drink.
It is a renewable resource.
Notes from class…
Part #9:
Organic Acids
What are organic acids?
Carboxylic acids are another homologous series.
A common name for organic acids is fatty acids.
Formic and acetic acids are the simplest fatty
acids.
The general formula is CnH2n+1COOH
Ethanoic acid is also known as vinegar.
Noted from booklet…
Properties of Carboxylic Acids
-COOH
Acid chloride acid anhydrides (you have taken
out the hydrogen by another acid group)
They are very soluble
They are very good solvents
They are weak acids
They don’t like to dissociate with hydrogen-they
don’t make many ions.
Notes from class…
Applications…
They can be used to form esters.
e.g. ethanoic acid + ethanol conc. H2SO4=ethyl
ethanoate + water
Detergents, thickening paints, and lubricants.
Stearic acids are also used to combine rubber
with other substances, such as pigments.
Notes from booklet…
Part #10:
Esters
Esters
Esters are organic, often fragrant compounds
formed in a reaction between an acid and an
alcohol with the elimination of water.
Polyester- 70s found in different kinds of
plastics.
Malleable. Used in clothes.
"Esters." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Noted from class…
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Examples of Esters
Methyl butanoate
Ethyl methanoate
Ethyl butanoate
Pentyl ethanoate
Pentyl butanoate
Octyl butanoate
Methyl ethanoate
Ethyl ethanoate
Notes from booklet
Properties of Ester
Acid Hydrolysis- reaction with water.
Acid + alcohol = ester + H2O
Ester +H2O = carboxylic acid
General reaction= ester + alkali= salt
Ester(oil or fat)+ H2O + (strong) alkali = type of salt +
alcohol sopanification (making soap)
Soap molecules are made of long fatty acid chains.
alkanol + alkanoic acid =alkyl alkanoate (ester)+ water
Noted from class…
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Part #11:
Aldehydes & Ketones
Aldehydes
Aldehydes have the general formula is
‘R’ represents either a hydrogen atom, or an
aliphatic or aromatic group.
Aldehydes are used while manufacturing dyes,
plastics, and food addictives.
Notes from class…
Ketones
an organic compound containing a carbon atom
connected to an oxygen atom by a double bond
and to two carbon atoms.
The simplest ketone is acetone. CH3-CO-CH3.
Are relatively reactive
Nitrogen oxide + Hydrocarbon=ketones +/
aldehydes, which are considered as pollution.
Noted from class…
“Dictionary”Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
"Ketones." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Part #1 2:
Aromatic Compounds
Aromatic Compounds
Are organic compounds that contain one or
more rings of carbon atoms and undergo
chemical reactions that are characteristic of
benzene. About half of all organic compounds
are aromatic.
They are considered as the most important
group of unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons.
The other large group of organic compounds
are classified as aliphatic compounds.
"Aromatic Compounds." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Some formulas and notes that can help me later…
Bibliography
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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9.
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17.
18.
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20.
21.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane
http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/genobc/chapter_11/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkene
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon
Lutz, Patricia. "Carbon." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
URL:http://members.aol.com/logan20/alkynes.html
Encyclopedia information about alkyne
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from
Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/Encyclopedia
WordNet information about alkyne
WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. More from WordNet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkyne
Acetylene." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005. Microsoft ® Encarta ®
2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Wood, James L. "Isomer." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Notes from class and home
Many definitions taken from ‘Microsoft Dictionary 2006’
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esterification
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkane
"Chlorofluorocarbons." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
“Alcohol." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
"Aromatic Compounds." Microsoft® Encarta® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
