 Language and Linguistics
 This section of the course is about language ... the vehicle for holding and transmitting culture
 We will cover the origins of human language; the structure of language; historical linguistics;
sociolinguistics; and the history of writing.
 Language origins
 Evidence for the evolution of language comes from anatomy – comparative anatomy of modern
humans and chimps and comparative anatomy of hominids through time – and from primate
sign language, experiments in tool making, and comparative linguistics.
 The capacity for language, like the capacity for culture, was part of biological evolution.
 The capacity for language evolved
 We do not know much about the details of language evolution but we do know that the capacity
for language, like the capacity for culture, was part of biological evolution.
 There have not been any hominids on Earth except for H. sapiens for 40,000 years.
 That is probably how long it has been since the currently observable human capacity for
language has been part of our repertoire.
 On being primitive
 There are technologically primitive societies on Earth – hunters and gatherers who never took
part in the Neolithic revolution, much less the preindustrial state revolution or the industrial
revolution or the post-industrial revolution now underway.
 But there are no primitive people on Earth.
 Humans have equal capacity for acquiring language.
 All human languages ever known can transmit any culture, even the most technologically
complex.
 Language and biology
 The evolution of language and the development of the human hand and the ability to make
tools are probably all related.
 The voice box and neurological complexity have all evolved.
 We know from endocranial casts that the area of the brain devoted to speech began developing
as early as H. habilis.
 Speech and handedness
 The speech area of the brain is adjacent to the area devoted to the control of the human hand.
 Oldowan tool makers were mostly right handed.
 Chimps can make stone tools – they don’t do that in the wild – but when they do in experiments
in captivity, they do not show any preference for right- or left handedness (Stanley Ambrose,
Science 2001).
 William Haviland points out that handedness is associated with lateralization of the brain, as is
language.
 Hypoglossal canal
 By half a million years ago, in H. erectus, we see a major increase in the size of the hypoglossal
canal – which could accommodate larger nerves for controlling the tongue.
 By the time we get to Neanderthals, the hypoglossal canal is the same size as it is in fully
modern humans (though this is controversial).
 Hyoid bone and language
 U-shaped bone at the base of the tongue that supports the tongue muscles.
 In Neanderthals, the hyoid shows that the larynx was as developed as that in modern humans.
 And the thorax had expanded to the same size as that of modern humans: breath control
required for continual speech.
 Washoe and other chimps
 Experiments with chimps and other apes show they are capable of much more than we thought,
in terms of language.
 Chimps do not have the physical apparatus for human speech, but Beatrice and Allan Gardner
taught Washoe, a female chimp, 160 signs in Ameslan.
 Generalizing signs
 Washoe moved beyond the signs and generalized them – and combined them.
 She learned “open” for one door, and then used it to ask for other doors to be opened
 She asked for refrigerators to be opened and pointed to open drawers and briefcases.
 Washoe and Lucy generalize
 Washoe and Lucy (trained by Roger Fouts) generalized the sign for feces to mean dirty.
 Lucy used the term as an expletive when she got mad at Fouts for not giving her something.
 Lucy invented “cry hurt food” for radishes, “water bird” for swans, “candy fruit” for
watermelons.
 Chimps and other great apes achieve the linguistic capacity of a 2–3 year old human.
 Comparative linguistics and language origins
 Brent Berlin and Paul Kay studied 110 languages and found seven stages in the development of
color terms.
 All languages have at least two terms, white and black, or color and lack of color.
 When languages acquire a third term, it is always red.
 When languages acquire a fourth term, it is either green or yellow.
 Berlin and Kay’s study
 At 5 terms, we get green or yellow, depending on which entered at stage IV.
 At 6 terms, blue enters, and at 7 terms, brown enters.
 At the final stage of 8 or more terms, purple, pink, orange, gray or combinations of these terms
enter the lexicon.
 Moreover, color lexicons become more complex as societies become more complex.
 Brown and Witkowski’s study
 Replicated Berlin and Kay’s work on color using names for organisms.
 At stage I of lexical complexity for organisms, there is a word for plant.
 Next, languages distinguish trees from all other plants.
 Then grerb enters the lexicon – grass and/or herb.
 From bush to wug
 Then bush enters, and then grass, and the vine.
 In the animal kingdom, the simplest lexicons distinguish animals from plants.
 Then fish enter the lexicon, and then:
 Bird
 Snake
 wug (worm and bug)
 Mammal
 Complexity of the lexicon
 But complexity of the lexicon for organisms is very plastic, as comparisons between urban and
primitive peoples shows.
 People in small-scale societies can name from 400-800 plants.
 In urban areas, this is just 40-80.
 And they recognize even fewer, as John Gatewood showed in his research on loose talk.
 Pidgins and creoles
 Recent studies of Pidgins and creoles also shed light on the evolution of language.
 Pidgin languages are always second languages.
 They develop when speakers of different languages try to communicate, often for purposes of
trade.
 The lexicon usually comes from one language, and the grammar from the other.
 Hawaiian Creole
 Creole languages develop from pidgins, but as people develop native capacity in a pidgin, the
structure changes.
 Hawaii is a good case. In the late 19th century, Filipinos, Puerto-Ricans, Anglo-Americans,
Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and American Blacks all came to work on the plantations there.
 Bickerton’s study
 Derek Bickerton studied Hawaiian Creole in 1975 when it was a fully developed language.
 Compared the structural properties of Hawaiian Creole to other creoles.
 Found similarity in the use of particles for modifying verb roots to produce tense, and
similarities in the use of singular, plural and neutral number markers.
 Bickerton suggests that the similarities across creoles are because of a genetic substrate in
humans.
 This substrate produces basic structural properties in languages at the early stage of
development.
 Noam Chomsky referred to this as the biological basis of the capacity for language acquisition.
 Language complexity and evolution
 Others now studying child languages across the world to test whether this is true.
 If it is, then the theory would be that the more child-like a language, the easier it is to learn –
and the more like early language it must be.
 But languages are getting simpler –English and modern German from early German, Spanish,
Italian and French from Latin.
 So the whole picture is not yet clear.
 Children’s language acquisition
 12 - 13 months name objects
 18 – 20 months one-word sentences
 18 – 24 months two-word sentences
 The experiment at Washington State University on language origins.
 Structure of language
 We shift now to the structure of language. There are two main approaches:
 Immediate constituents approach – Leonard Bloomfield
 Transformational grammar approach – Noam Chomsky
 IC grammar
 Collect native utterances and build up the grammar by discovering the parts.
 This is still used in learning languages and in understanding how any language works.
 The person most responsible for the IC approach was Leonard Bloomfield, a founder of
structural linguistics just after WW I.
 Chomsky’s observation
 The IC approach doesn’t account for the fact that humans can learn languages or for the fact
that languages are generative
 From a finite number of rules operating on a finite number of words, we can encode and decode
an infinite number of well-formed sentences.
 Transformational-generative grammar
 TG grammar makes it possible to understand language play.
 It makes understandable the fact that sentences can have many meanings – because they are
similar surface representations of different roots.
 Flying planes can be dangerous.
 I don’t like John’s cooking.
 Four parts of grammar
 Phonology
 Morphology
 Syntax
 Semantics
 The phonological rules are acquired first, and are the most difficult rules to acquire in a
second language after childhood.
 We’ll see this in the Kissinger effect later.
 Writing is not the same as language
 Language is an ideal concept, like race, and only exists in the surface representations.
 Speech and writing are different surface representations of language, and writing is not a better
representation than speech.
 Writing
 Writing is associated with the development of trade in the context of the state, but not all states
develop writing.
 Present at Uruk, in SW Iran, around 5500ya. The system began with many symbols and became
reduced over a period of 400 years.
 Writing invented independently at least twice in the world.
 It may have been invented three times in the Old World: In the Indus Valley, in the Middle East,
and in China
 May have been an example of stimulus diffusion from the Middle East to the other Old World
centers of ancient civilization.
 Writing was invented independently in the New World.
 English phonology
 English has 46 phonemes and many allophones.
 We discover the phonemes of a language by looking for short, minimal pairs, like pig/big in
English to isolate distinctive features.
 Here we see that voicing is the distinctive feature because p and b are both bilabial stops, but
only one is voiced.
 In English, we have stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, and liquids.
 Phonemes and allophones
 A phoneme is a set of similar sounds which native speakers of a language think of as being alike.
 Allophones are the members of the set, like English, [p] and [ph], in poke and spoke, tough and
stuff.
 Recall the concept of an allele – an alternative expression of a gene.
 The vocal apparatus
 We make these various sounds by regulating our breath and parts of our vocal apparatus.
 The apparatus is capable of making all sounds in all languages, but each language has a subset of
the possible sounds.
 Voiceless stops
 Stops, or plosives, are made by forming the mouth and tongue in a particular way and forcing
the air to stop temporarily on the way out of the mouth during speech.
 The letters p, t, and k represent the three common voiceless stops in English.
 The p sound is a bilabial stop
 The t sound is an apico-dental stop
 The k sound is a velar stop
 Voiced stops
 Each voiceless stop has its voiced counterpart in English, so we have
 p, t, k
 b, d, g
 Note the meaningful differences between the words ten and den, pig and big, cut and gut, curl
and girl.
 The difference is the single, distinctive feature of voicing.
 More on allophones
 The t sound has several allophones in English.
 Word initial, before a vowel, the t sound is heavily aspirated.
 Put your hand up to your mouth and say “torrid tango.”
 Say “itty bitty” – the t in the middle of each word has no aspiration. Word medially and
intervocalically, the t sound is unaspirated.
 Native speakers of English find it hard to make a word-initial, prevocalic, unaspirated t – like the
t in “patter.”
 Native speakers of Spanish use this sound incorrectly in English, especially when its and word
initial and prevocalic.
 Spanish simply has no aspirated t.
 But English speakers use the t sound incorrectly in Spanish – English has no word-initial,
prevocalic unaspirated stops.
 taco and thaco
 But note that Taco Bell is English, not Spanish, so Thaco Bell is incorrect.
 Affricates
 The word “saturate” has an affricate in it for many dialects of American English.
 An affricate is a combination of a stop and a fricative, a /t/ and a /sh/, in this case.
 One of the allophones of /t/ is /ch/ – when followed by the glide sound /y/ and the vowel sound
/u/ – as in satch-yur-ate.
 Some people say “matoor,” dropping the glide before the /u/, and thus converting the phoneme
/t/ to its prevocalic aspirated allophone.
 Dialect allophones
 British dialects of English don’t have the ch allophone for t at all.
 They say matyoor, separating the glide and the u vowel and adopting the prevocalic aspirated
allophone for t.
 English phonology
 The phonology of the grammar comprises the rules for the sounds of the language – which
sounds can be made, and how the sounds can occur in various positions in words.
 We have 46 phonemes in American English, including 11 vowels in most dialects of American
English.
 Sleek hawk – high-front to low-back vowels
 The ten vowels of English
I
see
o sew
v sit
U put
e set
u ooze
æ cat
b sofa
a hot
] saw
 Diphthongs
 Many Americans have nine, rather than ten vowels.
 cot and caught
 marry, merry, Mary
 There are only six squiggles to represent the ten vowels, plus four diphthongs:
say
toy
cow
my
ei
oi
ao
ai
 The Kissinger effect
 Why take you through these details of phonology?
 To show you how much you have to learn in order to become a native speaker of a
language.
 No one has a better vocabulary or a better command of the syntax and the semantics of English
than Henry Kissinger does.
 But Kissinger came to the U.S. when he was 15 years old, by which time, his phonology was
locked into German.
 Morphology
 Morphology comprises the rules of the grammar for constructing meaningful chunks of sounds.
 A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language.
 Bound and unbound morphemes.
 -un is a bound morpheme with many allomorphs
 illegal immaterial
 il
inactive ignoble
im
in
ig
 Past tense and plural nouns in English
 Plural s

part parts
 Past

z
bag bags
t
d
slip slipped
Əz
rose roses
Əd
bag bagged want wanted
 What rules govern these transformations?
 Sociolinguistics
 Language and gender
 The use of honorifics and hedging in speech
 Some language, like Japanese, have quite strong rules about how men and women should
speak.
 Gendered speech in Japanese
yamada ga musuko to syokuzi o tanosinda
yamada
son
dinner
enjoyed
yamada-san ga musuko-san to o-syokuzi o tanosim-are-ta
yamada-HON
son-HON
HON-dinner enjoyed-HON
Both sentences mean "Yamada enjoyed dinner with his son."
Bonvillain, Nancy. 2000. Language, culture, and communication: the meaning of messages. 3rd ed.
Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2000.
 Gendered registers
 Women in the U.S. use question mode for declarative statements as part of a softening, or
hedging speech register.
 Men also use softening modes, but in different situations.
 It remains to be seen whether the amount of softening differs between men and women.
 Sociolinguistics – dialects
 Social status marked by language
 Labov’s study of the r in “fourth floor” at Klein’s (20%), Macy’s (51%) and Sak’s Fifth Avenue
(62%)
 Code switching and dialects
 Ebonics is a dialect of English
 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:
language and thought
 We know that we can say things in one language that we can’t in another.
 But we also know that translation is possible.
 Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf, hypothesized that we think the way we
think because of our language.
 Verbs and thought
 For example, there are two verbs for “to be” in Spanish, depending on whether a phenomenon
is transitory or permanent.
 There are two verb forms in Turkish, depending on whether one knows the action or knows
about the action.
 Verbs in Navajo are marked for the shape of the object spoken about.
 SVO (English), SOV (Japanese), VSO (Welsh).
 Is the S/W hypothesis correct?
 Spanish and German require that the speaker categorize everyone as familiar or not. What does
all this do to our everyday thinking?
 Sapir said that “Human beings...are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has
become the medium of expression for their society” (1929).
 This is the strong form of linguistic determinism, which is not accepted.
 The weak form of linguistic relativity
 Variations in language structure do structure thought, but we do not know how much.
 In Israel, the U.S., and Finland, children incorporate gender roles at different ages. The
languages of these countries have correspondingly different levels of gender labeling.
 Historical linguistics
 Lexicostatistics and glottochronology: based on the idea that the core vocabulary of languages is
changes at a constant rate – about 14% per 1000 years.
 Morris Swadesh showed that this was more-or-less the case for many written languages.
 The claim is that, with caution, we can use this to examine the evolution of nonwritten
languages.
 Lexicostatistics
 Based on the systematic comparison of cognates across languages to determine the times since
two languages separated from a common ancestor.
 Reconstructing preliterate languages
 We use these principles to reconstruct languages that do not have writing
Fox
Cree
Menomeni
Ojibwa
pematesiwa
pematesiw
pematesew
pimatisi
niyawi
niyaw
neyaw
niyaw
posiwa posiw
posew
he lives
my body
he embarks
 1066 and all that
pisi
 beef
cattle
 pork
pig
 mutton
sheep
 venison deer
 chicken chicken
 dine, cogitate, endeavor, acquire, read, thing, build, want, sad, big
 defecate, copulate, urinate, expectorate
 garbage and target
 When did we get these words?
 village
 garage
 collage
 Indo-European language sub-families
 Indo-Iranian
 Italic
 Germanic
 Celtic
 Baltic
 Slavic
 Albanian
 Greek language
 Armenian language
 Thracian
 Dacian
 Phrygian
 Anatolian
 Tocharian
 Germanic
 German, Frisian, Dutch, Afrikaans, English, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish
 German: Bavarian, Swabian, Alsatian, Cimbrian, Rimella, Reinfrankisch, Pennsylvania,
Luxembourgeois, Swiss German, Yiddish
 Italic
 Portuguese, Galician, Spanish, Ladino, Asturian, Aragonese, Catalan, Valencian, French, Wallon,
Jerais, Poitevain, Piccard, Occitan, Lengadocian, Gascon, Auvergnat, Limosin, Franco-Provencal,
Rumantsch, Sursilvan, Fiulian, Ladin, Italian (and all its variants), Rumanian, Sardinian
 Note, however, that 150m people speak Russian as a second language.
 French and English are spoken as second languages by 50-75m people each.
 Malay-Indonesian, French, Urdu, Punjabi, Korean, Telegu, Tamil, Marathi, Italian, Cantonese
round out the top 20 and are spoken by at least 25m each.
 The vanishing languages
 5% of the world’s languages are spoken by 95% of the world’s people
 95% of the world’s languages are spoken by 5% of the world’s people
 A few facts about vanishing languages
 Of 220 Indian languages still spoken in Mexico, 17 are nearing extinction.
 Of the 168 American Indian languages listed for the United States, 71 are extinct or soon will be.
 Breton probably had 1.4m speakers in 1900. It is now down to perhaps 400k speakers.
 The case of Navaho
 Navajo was down to fewer than 5000 speakers in the 19th century. It made a dramatic
comeback and had over 100,000 speakers in the 1970s.
 Now, it too, may be headed for extinction, even though it is said to have over 150k speakers.
 What’s the problem?
 One could argue that language die-off is just part of natural evolution.
 The language of Cesar is not spoken today, and the language is Jesus is spoken by a few hundred
speakers.
 Nothing catastrophic seems to have happened . . . Why worry now?
 Language diversity and survival
 Language diversity did not cause the evolutionary success of Homo sapiens.
 Some fraction of human knowledge however, is stored in the languages remaining today.
 Whatever that fraction is, can we afford to lose it?
 The language disappearance experiment
 I wouldn’t be so worried about the mass extinction of languages if I had 20 or 30 planets on
which to conduct this experiment.
 We do not know if it’s enough to rescue knowledge rather than languages.
 What’s being done?
 Anthropologists and linguists who are concerned about language preservation are helping to
preserve and to vitalize languages.

Linguistics week 13
 Morphology 3
 Morphology, then
 What is it?
 It’s the study of word forms, and the changes we make to words
 It’s part of the grammar of languages?
–
What is the other important part?
 Some languages are morphologically more complex than others
–
What guess could you make about languages which are not morphologically complex?
 Words. How many words are there in this utterance?
 She was a good cook as cooks go, and as cooks go, she went.
 That was easy. How did you determine the number?
 Now answer two further questions
–
How many different word-forms are there?
–
How many different lexemes are there?
 And another question:
–
What do you think “lexeme” means?
–
Lexemes and word-forms are very like phonemes and allophones, actually.
 Word segmentation
 In English, words are conveniently separated by white space, in writing
 This is not true of Chinese
 And it is not true of spoken English either
–
If you know a language, you can separate the stream of continuous speech into words
–
Adults who never learned to read are equally aware of words
 Words are sound + meaning units
 Words (lexemes) are the units stored in dictionaries (and in your head)
–
With their pronunciation, meaning, and morphological structure
 Two kinds of words
 Function words
–
Restricted in number
–
A closed class
–
Have a grammatical function
–
Usually just one morpheme (a grammatical morpheme)
 Content words
–
An open class
–
New content words often come into use in every language
 Which words on this slide …? Chinese examples?
–
You think English is hard?
 Ha! When I was at school I had to do Latin
–
amo
See if you can find out what this is:
amamus
amas
amatis
amat
amant
–
annus
anni
anne
anni
Or this
annum annos
anni
annorum
anno
annis
anno
annis
 They were Latin inflections
 That means
–
The two lists each show the different word-forms, for a Latin noun or verb
 In English, inflection includes things like
–
Number
–
Tense
 BUT inflection does NOT allow for making a new lexeme
–
So sleepy is not an inflection of sleep
 Write down 10 roots (like sleep)
–
Give one or more inflected forms (eg sleeps) for each
–
And one or more derived forms (like sleepy)
–
Inflectional vs derivational morphology
 Inflection does not change the word class (syntactic category, part-of-speech, 詞類)
–
Derivation may or may not change word class
 Derivation makes a new lexeme
–
create  creative
 Inflection just changes the grammatical ending of the original lexeme
–
create  creates
 Inflection is productive
–
You can add –s to any verb, to make it plural
 Derivation is not necessarily productive
–
You cannot always add un- to an adjective, or -ive to a verb
 Roots and affixes
 Unbelievable contains
–
One free morpheme
–
A root and two affixes
»
One prefix and one suffix
 In English, there are derivational prefixes and suffixes
 There are no inflectional prefixes
 Suffixes are more common in the world’s languages
–
But Thai has only prefixes – no suffixes
–
Plural in the Zapotec language is realized by a prefix, not a suffix
 Infixes
 In Tagalog
–
sulat = write
–
sumulat = wrote
–
sinulat = was written
 What is the root morpheme here?
 What are the affixes?
 Yule describes a kind of infix used in English
–
I don’t want to go to uni-bloody-versity
 Is there any infixing in Mandarin, do you think?
 Reduplication
 Afrikaans
–
dik = ‘thick’; dikdik = ‘very thick’
 Motu (Papua New Guinea)
–
mero = boy; memero = boys
–
meromero = little boy
–
How do you say ‘little boys’ in this language?
 And – you guessed it – what uses does reduplication have in Mandarin?
 Reading
 Read Chapter 7
 Answer the Study Questions
 Don’t look at the answers until you have finished!
 Conversion to a different POS
 Related words with different POS share the same form
–
Bank: He banked the money
–
Better:
–
»
You should respect your elders and betters
»
His performance is difficult to better
Empty: He emptied his glass in one gulp
 Sometimes the stress changes
 See how many examples you can think of
 Zero morphs (in inflectional morphology)
 What’s the plural of sheep?
 We can either say
–
{SHEEP}:{Ø} (the root plus a zero morph), or
–
The morpheme {SHEEP} realizes both singular and plural meanings
 The same applies to the past and present tense of hit
 A lot of linguists don’t like the idea of zero morphs, because it implies
–
{羊} singular, {羊};{Ø} plural (!)
 Shortening processes
 Backformation (you usually need to know the history of the word)
–
Babysitter  babysit
–
Editor  edit
 Clipping (this doesn’t involve complete morphemes)
–
Science-fiction  sci-fi
–
Information  info
 Chinese stump compounds
–
台大
–
網咖
–
Are these backformations or clipped forms?
–
Neo-classical compounds: two bound morphemes
 Biology {LIFE}+{WORDS}
 Telephone {DISTANT}+{SOUND}
 Introduce {IN}+{LEAD}
 In a way, these are the closest English equivalent to Chinese words like 朋友
 Group activity
 Reading
 Read Chapter 7
 Answer the Study Questions
 Don’t look at the answers until you have finished!

Linguistics week 11 2007
 Phonetics 3
 Parameters for describing consonants
 So far (this is not complete yet) we have
–
Airstream (usually the same for all consonants)
–
Place of articulation
–
Voicing
–
Manner of articulation
 So, [p] is …
–
egressive pulmonic
–
bilabial
–
voiceless
–
plosive
 More manners of articulation:
 Trills (articulators collide rapidly and repeatedly)
–
Bilabial (brrr: not really part of English) [ʙ]
–
Alveolar (perro dog, in Spanish) [r]
–
Uvular (Paris, in French) [ʀ]
 Tap (usually alveolar)
–
Like a trill, but only one collision
–
In Spanish pero but [ɾ]
–
And glottal consonants…
 The glottal stop [ʔ]
–
Usually without plosion
–
Used in Cantonese 識唔識, 得唔得
–
Taiwanese?
–
And English, in London accent!
 The glottal fricative [h] is generally used to represent English “h”, and ㄏ spoken by Taiwanese
people
–
In mainland Mandarin, it’s [x], a velar fricative
–
Some other fricative sounds
 Mandarin has a voiceless retroflex fricative
–
It is [ʂ], representing ㄕ
–
Retroflexion means that the tongue is curled
 There is also a voiced retroflex fricative
–
[ʐ], aka ㄖ
–
However, some people transcribe this as [ɻ]
–
They believe it is a retroflex approximant
 And, there is a voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative
–
[ɕ], or ㄒ (only the consonantal part)
–
Affricates
 A plosive followed by a homorganic fricative
–
Homorganic = “same place of articulation”
–
so [kf] in breakfast is not an affricate, because [k] and [f] do not have the same place of
artic.
–
[ʣ] and [ʦ] are affricates, but are not normally treated so in English phonology
–
The only affricate English phonemes are /ʤ/ and /ʧ/
 Affricates in Mandarin
 /tsʰ/ and /ts/
 /tʂʰ/ and /tʂ/
 /tɕʰ/ and /tɕ/
–
Can you guess what they are?
–
What is the ʰ?
–
Why have I suddenly started using /asd/ instead of [asd]? (slant brackets instead of
square brackets)
 ㄘ and ㄗ
 ㄔ and ㄓ(retroflex affricate)
 ㄐ and ㄑ(alveolo-palatal affricate)
 Aspiration
 Aspirated and unaspirated consonants
–
ㄅ is unaspirated [p]
–
ㄆ is aspirated [ph] (puff of air)
 English: spit vs pit (aspiration difference)
–
Compare pit vs bit
–
That is a voicing difference
 Aspiration is much less important in English than in Chinese
–
Can you explain why?
 Because aspiration in Mandarin is phonemic (also, tone in Mandarin is phonemic)
 pʰ and p are two different phones; two different sounds
 but in Mandarin they are different phonemes
–
/pʰa/ (ㄆㄚ) and /pa/ (ㄅㄚ) represent different meanings
–
in English pʰ and p do not help to distinguish meaning
–
There are no minimal pairs like pʰa and pa
 Mandarin sounds
 http://www.wfu.edu/~moran/Cathay_Cafe/IPA_NPA_4.htm
 Vowels vs consonants
 Consonants
–
There is some obstruction in the vocal tract (=the mouth or throat)
 Vowels
–
There is no such obstruction (the air flows freely)
 Regional accent variation
 English accents
–
The consonants are generally the same
–
The vowels are often very different
 Mandarin Chinese accents
–
Pronunciation of consonants often varies widely according to region
 Describing vowels
 Say [i] followed by [æ] (like cat)
–
Think about where your tongue is
–
Look in a mirror
–
What changes? What can you say about the position of the tongue in the two cases?
 This is one of the features of vowel description
 Another feature (=characteristic)
 Now compare [ɑ] (father) with [æ] (like cat)
 You can also try comparing the vowels in ㄢ and ㄤ
 Notice any difference?
 This is the second distinguishing feature
 The third parameter
 Compare 四 with 速
 Or, compare ㄧ with ㄩ
–
The difference should be quickly apparent
 So, the 3 features are…
 The IPA vowel chart
 This represents of the inside of the mouth
 It shows
–
the cardinal vowels
»
–
marked by black dots
and the approximate position of vowels common in many languages
 The next slide shows the position of English vowels on the same kind of chart
 British
American
 Diphthongs
 Yule describes these as a vowel + an approximant (p49) so /bajt/; /bawt/
 We can also say there are two vowels involved
–
an initial vowel, in “bite” or ㄞ = a
–
a target vowel, in “bite” or ㄞ = I
–
the tongue moves towards I
–
but doesn’t actually reach its target
–
Check the cool website for a demo
–
So what is a phoneme?
 A phoneme is a member of the set of sounds of a particular language
 A phoneme can be spoken in different ways, depending on
–
the other sounds near it, in the utterance (context)
–
the local accent or dialect
–
the person speaking
 These different realizations (different ways) are the allophones of the phoneme
 A phoneme can be distinguished from every other phoneme
–
You do this by checking that a minimal pair exists
 Economy of effort: allophonic differences within one syllable
 The vowels in ㄢ and ㄤ are different (front and back) because the speaker is preparing for the
following consonant
 The consonants /k/ in kit and cat differ slightly because the speaker is preparing for the
following vowel. Tongue position for the first is further forward
 Why do these allophonic differences exist?
 In language, as in life, people are lazy!
–
It is logical that tongue movement should be minimized
–
As long as people can understand what we are saying!
–
Economy of effort: assimilation
 Another syllable or word influences pronunciation, in rapid speech
 How do you pronounce 根本?
–
This is an example of progressive assimilation
 What about 多少錢
–
This is an example of elision
–
Assimilation in English and French
 Usually it’s regressive
–
A phoneme is changed to accommodate (match) the next phoneme.
 Voicing
–
Newspaper, of course, have to
–
News has /z/; newspaper has [s] to accommodate the following /p/
–
French avec /avek/ in avec vous /aveg vu/ “with you”
 Assimilation of place of articulation
 /tem/ in ten minutes
 /iƷ/ in is she?
 http://www.btinternet.com/~ted.power/assimilation.html
–
For more examples
 Read about assimilation at http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~llsroach/phon2/asscoareli-into.htm
Linguistics week 4
Phonetics 2
Phonetics: the sounds of language
Not language-specific
Describes sounds produced in any or all languages
Phonology describes the sound patterns in particular languages, like English or Chinese
For example
This is how to make the sound [p]
The consonant cluster /pr/ is OK in English, not in Chinese
Phones: sound segments
When we know a language, we can segment an utterance into phones
We can do this even though there is no break between phones
Cat has 3 phones
But we don’t say k—a—t
If we don’t know the language, we can’t do this segmentation
It just sounds like one continuous stream of sound
Actually all language is one continuous stream of sound
The tongue (and other moving parts) move gradually
They don’t jump between positions
How many phones? Say them to your neighbor.
Dog?
Rabbit?
Phone
Knot
Comb
China
Two kinds of phone: consonants and vowels
Consonants: air flow from lungs is obstructed in some way (p38)
Vowels: the air flows freely
This is why doctors ask for “aaaahhh”
Vowels are often represented in English spelling by a e i o u
But spelling  pronunciation (p29)
Chinese:
The consonants are ㄅㄆㄇㄈ…
The vowels are ㄚㄛㄜㄝ… (but not always)
Problems with consonant-vowel distinction
Glides (or semivowels) /j/ and /w/ don’t seem to involve much obstruction
but most linguists think of them as consonants (check page 37, Glides)
ㄦ causes an obstruction, and is thought of as a consonant by linguists
Some of the ㄅㄆㄇ symbols often represent two phones, one consonant and one vowel
Can you say which?
How many vowels? How many consonants?
dog?
rabbit?
phone
knot
comb
China
I
π
pine
long
餓
他
龍
他們
How many words, morphemes, syllables, consonants and vowels in the following? Count semivowels as
consonants.
1. Greenhouse
2. Red houses
3. Women
4. 我們
5. Those sheep
6. 老鼠
7. 老太太
8. 玻璃
9. John drinks coffee
10. 他不喝咖啡
Reading for next time
Chapter 4; and
Compare KK 音標
http://www.ysjh.cy.edu.tw/nineone/eng/phonics/vowel.htm
with the US system used in our book
(tables on pages 34 & 38)
write the differences you find in pencil in your book
Language presentations
10-15 minutes
Talk about
Where? Who? How many?
Interesting facts about the language
Relationship with other languages
Sounds of the language
Morphology and syntax (= grammar)
You can use wikipedia and ethnologue to help you
BUT you must consult other websites too
You will get a better grade if you
Consult library books about the language, or about linguistics
Tell us which books and websites you used
Articulatory phonetics
What does that mean?
What are the other two phases of signal transmission, please?
Classification of sounds in articulatory phonetics
First, we’ll look at consonants
Describing (characterizing) consonants
First, airstream:
For all sounds in English and Mandarin, this is pulmonic egressive
Second, place of articulation
Listed in Yule chapter 5
How would you describe the difference between [f], [θ] and [s]?
How about [p], [t] and [k]? (groups?)
Third, voicing
Voiced and voiceless consonants
[f] and [v] are both bilabial
So what’s the difference?
[v] is voiced
The vocal folds open and close rapidly
(They vibrate)
[f] is voiceless
No vibration
Voiced vs voiceless
Of course [v] does not exist in Mandarin
It does in Shanghai (因為 pronounced yinvei!)
Say both, and put your fingers on your larynx
[b] and [p] are voiced and voiceless respectively
[b] doesn’t exist in Mandarin either
In fact, there are very few voiced consonants in Mandarin
Manner of articulation
Now, consider the difference between
[t] and [s] (these exist in Mandarin)
[d] and [z] (these don’t)
How about [p] and [m]
or [d] and [n]?
Features (characteristics) for describing consonants
So far (this is not complete yet) we have
Airstream (usually the same for all consonants)
Place of articulation
Voicing
Manner of articulation
So, [p] is …
egressive pulmonic
bilabial
voiceless
plosive
Linguistics week 9
u
u
Phonetics 2
u
Morphological exercise (for 42218 students)
u
42201 students: optional
u
You will be assigned one of Yule chapter 7 exercise C, D or II (i, ii and v only)
u
You must hand it on Monday 26th
u
You are recommended to do it before the midterm exam (it will be good practice)
u
For help: look at page 68, and study question 5
u
Describing (characterizing) consonants
u
First, airstream:
–
For all sounds in English and Mandarin, this is pulmonic egressive
u
Second, place of articulation
–
Listed in Yule chapter 5
u
How would you describe the difference between [f], [θ] and [s]?
u
How about [p], [t] and [k]? (groups?)
u
Third, voicing
u
Voiced and voiceless consonants
u
u
u
u
u
–
[f] and [v] are both bilabial
–
So what’s the difference?
[v] is voiced
–
The vocal folds open and close rapidly
–
(They vibrate)
[f] is voiceless
–
No vibration
–
Features (characteristics) for describing consonants
–
Airstream (usually the same for all consonants)
–
Place of articulation
–
Voicing
–
Manner of articulation
So,
So, [p] is …
–
egressive pulmonic
–
bilabial
–
voiceless
–
plosive
Phonology 1: Minimal pairs (show b/v, then Yule 46&50)
u
u
Each pair has the same number of phones
–
bet
pet
–
bet
bed
–
bet
bat
Each pair differs by only one phone
–
They are called minimal pairs
–
These minimal pairs prove that
»
/b/ and /p/
»
/t/ and /d/
»
/e/ and /a/
–
make a difference of meaning, in English
–
those six sounds are Phonemes of English
u
Altogether, there are about 42 phonemes
u
Chapter 3
Julia S. Falk
u
Words and Word Morphemes
u
Key words:
u
Word
u
Morpheme
u
Free morpheme
u
Bound morpheme
u
Root
u
Affixes
u
Prefix
u
Suffix
u
Infixes
u
inflectional
u
derivational
u
What is a word?
u
Morphology
u
the field of cognitive science which studies how knowledge about the form or internal structure
of words are represented and processed in the minds of speakers.
u
divided into two main parts, inflectional morphology and derivational morphology
u
Basic units of morphology: morpheme, allomorph
u
Morphemes
u
Morphology (cont’d.)
u
inflectional morphology and derivational morphology.
u
Inflectional morphology : knowledge through which speakers of a language create several
paradigms of the same word to express various grammatical categories like number, person,
tense, aspect, case, and gender:
u
Examples of inflectional morphemes (cont’d.)
u
Person and number in French:
u
–
Je {mang-e} – I eat
–
Tu {mang-es} – You eat
–
Il {mang-e} – He/she/it eat
–
Nous {mang-eons} – we eat
–
Vous {mang-ez} – You (pl) eat
–
Ils {mang-ent} – They eat
Aspect in Cantonese:
–
–
{maai5}
»
‘buy’ – {maai5-zo2}
»
‘has bought’
{wan2} ‘play’
»
{wan2-gan2}
»
‘is playing’
u
Derivational morphology
u
Derivational morphology or word formation morphology on the other hand, is concerned with
the speaker knowledge that underlies processes that form new words out of existing ones by
adding various affixes, which are pieces of words.
u
English: Causative verbs from nouns and adjectives
–
{energy} – {energ-ize}
–
{sterile} – {steril-ize}
–
{penal} – {penal-ize }
u
Examples of derivational morphemes (cont’d)
u
Cantonese:
u
–
{zai2} (little/small) as in:
–
{dang3 zai2} (small chair),
–
{syu1 zai2} (booklet)
–
{ toei2 zai2} (small table)
Dagaare: agentive nouns from verbs
–
{di} ‘to eat’ - {di-raa} ‘eater’ ‘some one who can eat a lot’
–
{zo} ‘to run’ – {zo-raa} – ‘runner’, ‘athlete’
–
{
} ‘roam’ –
{ }
‘roamer’, ‘tourist’
•
Chapter 7
•
Phonetics
•
Phonetics—basics
•
In phonetics we refer to individual sounds as phones or sounds; Never letters
•
All phonetic transcription is done within phonetic brackets: [si]
•
Definition: the study of human speech sounds
•
Fields of Phonetics
•
Articulatory phonetics
–
•
Acoustic phonetics
–
•
How sounds are produced
Physical properties of sounds
Auditory phonetics
–
How sounds are perceived
•
Transcription Vs. Spelling
•
We want, as much as possible, to create a system of one-to-one sound-symbol correspondence.
•
This is not necessarily the case with spelling.
•
Examples: ice vs.police; tine vs. machine.
•
Also: catch, cough,, bought, trick, knight, leisure, queen, this, threw, Xerox, psychology, design.
•
Do -boo-two –new –you-true
•
Find –enough -photo-
•
Agent –father –pad- above
•
City – cow-
•
International Phonetic Alphabet
•
All the world’s languages can be transcribed using the IPA
•
In this class, we’ll be using a simplified, US English version of the IPA (many of the IPA sounds are
not used in English, e.g. Retroflex Chinese, and Welsh ‘ll’)
•
In IPA transcription, one phone (IPA symbol) usually equals one sound
•
Benefits of Phonetic Transcription
•
We can use IPA transcription across languages, there is one symbol for EVERY possible human
sound
•
There is a 1-1 correspondence of sound to symbol
•
Brackets show the pronunciation of the word, which may change from time to time, even if it’s
the same word
•
How Are Sounds Produced?
•
Most sounds are produced by an air stream from lungs through one or more speech organs.
•
Where and how obstructions are in the air stream determine the identity of the sound
produced.
•
Speech Production Mechanism
•
Nasal cavity
•
Oral cavity
•
Pharynx
•
Vocal folds
•
Glottis
•
Energy source
•
Vocal tract
•
Points of articulation
•
IPA chart
•
IPA table
•
PHONETIC ALPHABET FOR ENGLISH
(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 225)
•
Two types of transcription
•
Broad Transcription( only basic set of principles are used)
•
Narrow transcription ( All or most of the characteristics of sounds that a transcriber can
perceive are used.)
Chapter 8
Phonetic Features
JULIA FALK
Phonetic Features
A. Phonetics
B. Phonetics Branches
C. Airstream Mechanisms
D. Vocal Tract
E. Consonants
F. Vowels
G. Voicing
H. Place of Articulation
I.
Manner of articulation
Phonetic Features
The general study of the characteristics speech sounds utilized by human beings is called phonetics
The study of speech sounds is called phonetics. It aims to provide the set of features or properties
necessary to describe and distinguish all the sounds in human languages throughout the world
To describe speech sounds it is necessary to know what an individual sound is and how each speech
sound differs from all others.
Airstream Mechanisms
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing air out of the lungs through the mouth and the nose.
Since the lung air is used, these sounds are called pulmonic and because the air is pushed out, they are
called egressive. All English sounds are produced by pulmonic egressive air stream mechanism.
Airstream Mechanisms
Other air stream mechanisms used to produce sounds are called:
1. Ejectives;
2.
Implosives and
3.
Clicks.
Airstream Mechanisms
Instead of lung air, the body of air in the mouth can be used.
When the air is sucked in, ingressive sounds (implosives and clicks) are produced, but ejectives are
egressive sounds because the air in the mouth is pushed out. Implosives and ejectives are produced by
glottalic air stream mechanism whereas clicks are produced by a velaric air stream mechanism
(Fromkin, Rodman, Hymmes, 2003, p. 241).
Figure 1. Vocal Tract
Sounds of all Languages
The sounds of all languages fall into two classes:
A. Vowels
B. Consonants
Consonants
Consonants are classified by reference to three sets of articulatory factors:
1. Voicing: The role of vocal cords
2. The Place of Articulation: The place in the vocal tract where the airstream is stopped or impeded
3. The manner of articulation: The manner in which the airstream flows out of the vocal tract
A. Voiced & Voiceless Sounds
When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them without any
hindrance. No vibration and consequently no voice is produced. Sounds produced in this way are called
voiceless.
[p], [t], [k], [s] in the English words seep, seat, and seek are voiceless sounds.
A. Voiced & Voiceless Sounds
When the vocal cords are near each other without being tightly closed, the air stream forces its way
through and causes them to vibrate and produce voice or phonation. Sounds produced in this way are
called voiced. [b], [d], [g], [z] in the words bate, date, gate, cob, cod, cog and daze are voiced sounds.
A test to distinguish voiced and voiceless sounds
If you put a finger in each ear and say the voiced “z-z-z-z-”, you can feel the vibrations of the vocal cords.
If you now say the voiceless “s-s-s-s”, you will not feel these vibrations. When you whisper, you are
making all the speech sounds voiceless.
2. Place of Articulation
The place in the vocal tract where the air stream is stopped or impeded is called place of articulation.
Consonants can be classified according to their place of articulation in the following way
Place of Articulation
a) Bilabials: These sounds are produced by bringing both lips together [p, b, m, w].
b) Labiodentals: These sounds are formed by putting the upper teeth on the lower lip. [f] and [v] are
labiodentals.
c) Dentals or Interdentals: They are formed with the tongue tip between the upper and the lower teeth:
[θ, ð].
Place of Articulation
d) Alveolars: These sounds are formed with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, the rough bony
ridge behind the upper teeth: [t, d, s, z, n, l, r].
e) Alveopalatals: Sounds produced with the tip of the tongue against the borderline between the hard
palate and the alveolar ridge are called alveo-palatals: [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ,dʒ]
f) Palatal: This sound is produced by bringing the front of the tongue close to the hard palate: [j].
Place of Articulation
g) Velars: Sounds produced by raising the back of the tongue against the velum (soft palate): [k, g, ŋ].
G) Post velars: They are produced by raising (touching or approaching) the back of the tongue to the
back part of velum just before uvula. [x] and [q] in Persian
h) Glottals: They are produced in the glottis, the space between the vocal cords, without the active use
of the tongue and the other parts of the mouth. [h] and [ʔ] are glottal sounds.
Anterior versus Coronal
If the blade of the tongue is raised in the articulation of a sound, the feature [+ coronal] is produced.
Therefore, dentals, alveolars and alveopalatals are [+ coronal] and other sounds are [- coronal]. Sounds
that are produced at points to the front of the alveopalatal region have the feature [+ anterior] and
other sounds are [- anterior].
3. Manner of Articulation
The way in which the air stream flows out of the vocal tract is called manner of articulation
3. Manner of Articulation
a) Stops: They are produced by some form of complete stopping of the air stream and then letting it go
abruptly. They are also called plosives. [p, b, t, d, k, g, ʔ,q ] are oral stops and we use the feature [+
abrupt release] to refer to them. [m], [n], and [ŋ] are nasal stops.
Because there is a total obstruction of the oral stream in the oral cavity, all stops (including nasal stops)
are non-continuants or [-continuants]
3. Manner of Articulation
b) Fricatives: They involve narrowing the air passage and having the air pass through the narrow
opening. As the air pushes through, a type of friction is produced. [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ], [ʒ] [h], [x] are all
fricatives.
As the obstruction is partial, with sufficient space left for the air stream to continue moving through the
mouth, these sounds are said to be [+ continuant].
3. Manner of Articulation
c) Affricates: These sounds share features with stops and fricatives. They begin like stops and end like
fricatives. In other words, the air passage is completely blocked but the release is not abrupt, so the final
stage becomes similar to fricatives. Thus affricates are said to be [- abrupt release]. Affricate sounds are
[tʃ] and [ʤ]
3. Manner of Articulation
d) Nasals: These sounds are formed when the velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flow out
through the nose. [m], [n], and [ŋ] are nasal sounds ([+ nasal]); all the other sounds are oral ([- nasal]).
Non-nasal stops, fricatives and affricates are called obstruents because the air stream can not escape
through the nose; it is either fully obstructed or partially obstructed through the vocal tract. All the
other sounds (vowels, liquids and glides) are [+ sonorant]. Sonorants are produced with relatively free
airflow through either the mouth or nose.
3. Manner of Articulation
e) Approximants
e.1) Lateral: The tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge, but the passage is not blocked so that the air can
escape laterally over the sides of the tongue. [l] is a lateral sound.
3. Manner of Articulation
e) Approximants
e.2) The sound [r] is produced in a variety of ways:
A) Retroflex: this kind of [r] is produced by curling the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar
ridge.
B) Trill (rolled): this [r] is produced by the tip of the tongue vibrating against the roof of the
mouth.
C) Tap: this sound is produced by a single tap instead of a series of a vibrating taps. [l] and [r] are
liquids.
3. Manner of Articulation
e) Approximants
e.3) Semi-vowels or glides: They are produced with the tongue moving or gliding to or away from the
position of a nearby vowel. [j] is a palatal but [w] is a bilabial or velar glide.
3. Manner of Articulation
Obstruents (Non-nasal stops, fricatives and affricates) and glides are [- syllabic] all the time. Vowels are
[+ syllabic] all the time, but liquids and nasals [[m], [n], [ŋ], [l]] are sometimes [- syllabic] and sometimes
[+ syllabic]. When they come at the end of a syllable preceded by a stressed syllable, they are [+
syllabic].e.g., button
Chapter 14
Julia
Deep structure
And
Transformations
Deep structure VS Surface Structure
Surface structure: - The form in which constituent occur in actual utterances
Deep Structure: The underlying structure which carries the meaning of the sentences
Syntactic System of a Language: is the set of principles that link the meaning of sentences with the
form in which they are expressed
Transformational rules: The syntactic rules that convert the deep structure into surface structures
Transformational Grammar: The approach to linguistic description in which it is believed that some
surface structures are deriver from other structures
Transformational rules
Four different changes :
A: Rearrangement of constituents:
B: Deletion of constituents
C: Addition of constituents
D: Substitution of constituents
Rearrangement of constituents:
e.g. Particle movement transformation
Turn on the TV.
Turn the TV on.
Deletion of constituents
Imperative Transformation
You will read the book.
Read the book.
Equi NP deletion
* I want I to go to school.
I want to go to school.
Addition of constituents
For to insertion
*It is easy John speak English.
It is easy for John to speak English.
Substitution of constituents
Pronominalization
Tom can speak English.
He can speak English.
Ambiguous Sentences
(1) John is too far away to see.
(2) John is too far away for any one to see him.
(3) John is too far away to see anything.
Ambiguous Sentences
Properties of Deep Structures
Deep and surface structures account for the existence of ambiguous sentences.
Deep and surface structures show that many aspects of language are abstract and not immediately
apparent from the surface.
Transformations are indeed generalizations.
Deep structures are abstract, so transformations do not operate directly on a deep structure to
immediately produce surface structure.
Views on Deep Structures
Deep structures should be determined on the bases of meaning.
Deep structures should be established on evidence from syntax alone.
The fact is that deep structures may be justified by either meaning of sentences or by their syntactic
form and their syntactic relationships to other sentences.
Deep Structure and Transformations are needed for Generalization
Deep Structure and Transformations are needed for Generalization
Deep Structure and Transformations are needed for Generalization
Importance of Order in Transformations
 Chapter 15
Complexity and Productivity
 Productivity means:
 -There is no limit to the number of simple sentences that can be combined.
-
There is no “longest” sentence for a language.
-
- There is no end to the list of possible sentences.
The productive nature of syntax is due to two processes that combine simple sentences:
1. Conjoining
2. embedding
 1. CONJOINING
-
Conjoined Sentences:
-
1. John is a teacher and Mary is a dentist and Tom is a student…..
-
S
-
Conjoined NPs:
-
Reza bought a book and a pen.
-
NP
s conj s (conj s)
NP CONJ NP
Deep structure:
Reza bought a book and Reza bought a pen.
Deletion of repeated constituents Transformation:
Reza bought a book and a pen.
 1. CONJOINING
-
Conjoined VPs:
-
She studied all night but didn’t pass the exam.
-
VP
VP CONJ
VP
Deep Structure:
She studied all night but she didn’t pass the exam
Deletion of repeated constituents Transformation:
(Equi NP Deletion)
She studied all night but didn’t pass the exam.
 1. CONJOINING
-
Conjoined ADJs:
-
She is an attractive and interesting girl.
-
ADJ
ADJ
CONJ
ADJ
Deep Structure:
She is an attractive girl and she is an interesting girl.
Deletion of repeated constituents Transformation:
She is an attractive and interesting girl.
 2.EMBEDDING
-- I saw the man who was helping a boy who was looking for a woman who had taught English to the
students who …
-I know Joe will arrive by midnight.
-
That the elves dug those craters surprised the scientists.
-
The hobo who is sitting on the bench was once a millionaire
NP
N
S
 2.EMBEDDING
-I know Joe will arrive by midnight.
Deep structure:
•
I know it John will arrive by midnight.
“it deletion Transformation” deletes “it” whenever it occurs between a verb and a sentence.
-I know Joe will arrive by midnight.
 2.EMBEDDING
-
That the elves dug those craters surprised the scientists.
Deep structure:
*It that elves dug those craters surprised the scientists.
A
1. It deletion tran.
2. That insertion Tran.
-
That the elves dug those craters surprised the scientists.
B
1. That insertion Tran.
2. Extraposition Tran.
It surprised the scientists that elves dug those craters
 2.EMBEDDING
-
The hobo who is sitting on the bench was once a millionaire.
Deep Structure:
*The hobo The hobo is sitting on the bench was once a millionaire.
a. Relativization Trans.:
The hobo who is sitting on the bench was once a millionaire.
b. Relative reduction Tran.(optional)
The hobo sitting on the bench was once a millionaire.
 2.EMBEDDING
 The hobo who is old was once a millionaire.
Deep Structure:
*The hobo the hobo is old was once a millionaire.
a. Relativization Trans.:
The hobo who is old was once a millionaire.
b. Relative reduction Tran.(optional)
*The hobo old was once a millionaire.
C. Adjective Inversion Trans. (obligatory)
The old hobo was once a millionaire.
 Summary of all Constituent Structure rules discussed so far.
 S
NP (adj) VP
 S
S Conj S (conj S )
 NP
NP
 NP
(art) N (S)
 VP
V
 VP
V (NP) (PP)
 PP
P NP
S
ADJ
 The End
 Thank you for your Careful attention