The Age of Nationalism, 1850-1914
Aim: Why did nationalism emerge as such a
powerful political force in the later half of the 19th
century, and what role did it play in European
politics?
Napoleon III in France
•
The 2nd Republic under Louis Napoleon- vision of
national unity and social progress






Extension of universal male suffrage gave LN unprecedented
support from middle and urban worker classes
Authoritative ruler could preserve order from socialist forces of
48’ revolutions
Belief that strong leader needed to preserve economic well being
of citizens, as well as protect them from bureaucratic govt thru
direct democracy
1851- Dissolved French Assembly and seized power in coup
d’etat due to no constitutional provision making 2 terms possible
92% approval thru plebiscite for 10 year term
Elected as hereditary emperor in 1852
• Why were French people so willing to support Louis
Napoleon?
Louis Napoleon’s 2nd Empire (1852-1870)
• Louis Napoleon self proclaimed Emperor
Napoleon III
• Goal: Economic progress = political and social
stability
 Investment banks & RR construction
 Public works programs of Paris
 Middle class prospered and unemployment dwindled
 Working class support due to better living conditions
and formal recognition of labor unions
Louis Napoleon’s 2nd Empire (1852-1870)
• Political Actions:
 Restricted Assembly- members voted by universal
male suffrage every 6 years
 1860’s- decline in political power due to international
pressures and loss of middle class liberal support;
granted liberal reforms to Assembly
 1869- granted new constitution- dual govt. made up of
parliament and hereditary emperor
• Was France under Napoleon III becoming more
authoritative or democratic?
Not the 1st, Not the 2nd, but the 3rd
Republic for France!!
• Franco-Prussian war reopened class antagonisms and
created political upheaval in 1871
 France declared 3rd Republic in midst of war and flight of Louis
Napoleon
• Due to surrender of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia,
Liberals formed the Paris Commune to challenge
National Assembly for govt control
 National Assembly, led by Adolphe Thiers, crushed uprising by
sending troops into Paris
 Civil War resulted in death of Commune, as well as 20k French
Growth of French Nationalism
• Why did French Nationalism grow after bloody events of
1871?
 3rd Republic demonstrated social and political conservatismleast divisive form of govt.
 Growth of moderate Republican leaders- led by Leon Gambetta,
established absolute parliamentary supremacy over President
 Republicanism preserved thru legalization of trade unions,
imperial conquest, public education (secular republicanism)
• The Dreyfus Affair (1901-1905)
 Jewish captain wrongfully accused and convicted of treason
 Affair split France b/w conservative and liberal forces
 Although declared innocent, paved they way toward greater
separation of church and state within govt and societyNationalism
Italian Nationalism
• Never united before 1850, reorganized by Congress of
Vienna in 1815- broken into 4 Kingdoms
• Question of Nationalism? Possible approaches:
 Radical approach by Giuseppe Mazzini- democratic republic
based upon universal male suffrage
 Federation by Vincenzo Gioberti- progressive pope to serve as
president
 Autocratic kingdom inspired by Kingdom of Sardinia
• Victor Emanuel- Monarch of Sardinia- sought to preserve
liberal constitution of 1848 from Austrian Empire
 Emanuel and Constitution perceived as possible solution to
unification
 RCC would stand vehemently opposed to unification due to
liberal concepts
Count Camilio Benso di Cavour & Italian
Unification
• Cavour- Symbolized strong bond b/w
aristocracy and middle class
• Goal: unification of N and C Italy
 Need to drive out Austria from N Italy led to secret
Alliance w/France
 War with Austria led to annexation of Lombardy to
Sardinia, but fell short of Northern unification
 Central Italy aligned with Sardinia
Giuseppe Garibaldi & Italian Unification
• Liberal Nationalist and leader of the Red Shirts
 Overran Sicily and threatened papacy in Rome
 Political competition b/w Cavour and Garibaldi
• Garibaldi and Cavour met in Naples- symbolized
unification of Northern and Southern Italy
• Kingdom of Italy evolved into parliamentary
monarch under Victor Emanuel
 Suffrage limited to propertied males
 Italy united theoretically, yet deep divisions due to
industrial north and agrarian south
Germany before Otto von Bismarck
• German politics characterized by tension and stalemate
following Frankfurt Assembly
• Growth of German industry under customs union
(Zollverein)
 German states growing rich, led by Prussia- but Austria excluded
 Leading factor moving towards national unification
• William I of Prussia- believed in merits of larger army
• Growth of Prussian parliament following 1848 Rev
 Tried to establish de-militarized Prussia
 Parliament held real political power
 Military to answer to parliament
• William I appointed Otto von Bismarck to help transform
Prussia into military state to combat power of parliament
The Emergence of Bismarck in Prussian
Politics
• Bismarck emerged as most influential German
leader b/w Luther and Hitler
• Master politician- pragmatic
• Declare that govt would rule w/o parliamentary
consent
 “The great questions of the day will not be decided by
speeches and resolutions…that was the blunder of
1848…but by BLOOD & IRON”
 Opposition to plans demonstrated thru public support
for liberal in parliament
The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
• Area of Schleswig-Holstein- Danish attempt to
bring under control sparked war with PrussianAustrian forces
 Bismarck quick to turn against Austria at conclusion of
war to kick out of Northern German affairs
• 7 week war
 Utilization of RR’s and heavy artillery
 German Confederation dissolved
 Austria withdrew from German affairs
 Prussian expansion successful
Bismarck and Parliament
• Bismarck’s belief about nationalism- not dangerous ideology that
challenged conservative rule, but one that could be used for
unification and prosperity of ALL classes
• New Constitution drafted following war with Austria for new North
German Confederation





Each state retained local govt.
King of Prussia (Wilhelm I) became president of confederation
Chancellor Bismarck only responsible to president
Both President and Chancellor controlled army and foreign affairs
Creation of bicameral legislature, with lower house elected by universal
male suffrage (eliminate power & influence of middle class)
 Liberals of legislature fully backed Bismarck- dreams of unification
 Societal value shift from middle class liberals to aristocratic Prussian
officer
The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)
•
•
•
Final step towards German unification was
eliminating French threat and driving remaining
German states into Prussian control
During course of War, Louis Napoleon captured
and 3rd Republic proclaimed!!!
Prussian victory led to proclamation of Wilhelm
I as Emperor of Germany (2nd Reich)
 Prussian Constitution applied to all Germany
•
Terms of Peace Treaty with France
 France to pay $5 billion indemnity
 France to ceded eastern province of Alsace and
Lorraine
The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)
• Impact of War:
Surge in German nationalism
Illustration of Social Darwinism
Prussia emerged as most powerful state in
Europe
“New Conservatism”- alignment of King and
propertied classes, with growing support from
working classes
German Unification
The German Empire (1870-1914)
• German Empire = union of Prussia and 24 states
• National govt headed by Chancellor Bismarck, and
representative assembly thru Reichstag
 Bismarck’s Kulturkampf- “struggle for civilization” launched
against RCC
• 1873 Depression- hurt German agricultural economy
with importation of cheap grain from US and Russia
 Calls for economic nationalism/economic protectionism =
protective tariff
• Bismarck outlawed German socialist partiesrevolutionary force that transcended nation-state
 Sought to win over working classes thru social security reforms
 However, socialism growing thru Marxian Social Democratic
Party
Wilhelm II and the Fall of Bismarck
• Wilhelm II succeeded to become emperor in
1890
 Opposed Bismarck’s policy of outlawing German
socialists and forced him to resign!!!
 “Dropping the Pilot”
• Govt. legalized socialist political parties and
foreign policy shifted
 By 1912- German Socialist Party became majority in
Reichstag
 German socialists were ardent nationalists and liberal
reformers- but opposed expansionism and increased
military spending
“Dropping the Pilot”
Austro-Hungarian Empire
• Empire divided in 2 by war with Prussia- Dual
Monarchy- Austrian Empire and Hungarian
(Magyars) Empire
• Ethnic diversity became political Achilles heal of
Austrian politics
 Minority German population troubled by language
differences and education
• Hungarian politics just as difficult
 Hungarian minority eligible to vote
 Croatians and Romanians alienated
 Nationalism worked to weaken and destroy the state,
not enhance
European Politics after 1870
• Nation building and unification complete by “blood and
iron” approach
• National state dominated politics there after ward
 Emergence of mass politics and political parties
 Growing mass loyalty towards the nation state (nationalism)
• Reasons for growing support of masses:
 Extension of universal male suffrage
 Women suffrage
 Political parties represented masses
• The “Golden Rule” for political stability- domestic or
international crisis could divert attention and prevent
internal strife/revolution/demands for reforms
Modernization of Russia
•
•
•
19th century Russia characterized by
multinational population, thus selfdetermination was perceived as
subversive ideology
Autocratic rule still firmly in place
Russia’s greatest challengeMODERNIZATION- allow Russia to
compete with fellow European nations
Russia in the 19th Century
• 1850’s Russia- poor agrarian society
(90%)
Little industrial development
Serfdom still firmly entrenched- hereditary
subjugation
Serfdom emerged as great political issue of
1840’s
The Crimean War (1853-56)
•
•
•
•
Cause – dispute with France over who should protect
Christian shrines in Ottoman Empire
Fighting- concentrated in Crimean peninsula of Black
Sea
Russia suffered humiliating defeat due to inability to
adequately supply army due to poor transportation, lack
of industry, and poor military development
Defeat illustrated inferiority of Russian economy, military,
and govt organization

Fear of massive peasant/serf revolt sparked need for reforms
Russia’s “Great Reforms”
•
Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in 1861


•
Establishment of zemstvo- new local assemblies
that deal with local problems

•
Peasant villages became collectives
Limited mobility and progress
Liberal hopes of evolution towards representative
assembly met with disappointment
Judicial reforms included equality before the law
and independent courts
• Censorship declined, education liberalized
Russia Industrializes
• Russian modernization = economic development
• Industry and transportation #1
 Govt subsidies encouraged construction
 RR development aided agrarian Russia- grain economy
 Development of factories at St. Petersburg and Moscow
• Industrial development = military development
 Desire for Imperial expansion accompanied industrializationChinese sphere of influence
• Industrialization also fostered growth of Marxism among
working classes
Russia After Alexander II
• Tsar Alexander II assassinated in 1881, bringing reform
era to and end
 Succeeded by Reactionary Tsar Alexander III- sought to extend
economic modernization, but freeze political modernization
(conservative reactionary)
• Sergei Witte (Minister of Finance)- inspired by both
nationalism and industrialization, believed that Russia
suffering from lack of modernization
 Doubled nationalized RR’s (trans-Siberian line)
 Currency based on gold standard
 Encouraged western nations to invest capital and factories in
Russia-spurred development of steel, coal, and oil industries
The Russo- Japanese War (1904-05)
• Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
 Rooted in Russian desire for N. Korea
 Russia suffered humiliating defeat- brought about calls for
political reforms
• Calls for reform:
 Business and professional classes seeking representative
regime
 Working classes and peasants seeking more radical reforms
 Nationalist calls for self- determination from Russia’s ethnic
minorities
 Separatist nationalist calls from Ukraine and Poles
The Russian Revolution of 1905
• Causes/Actions:
 Working classes marched upon St. Petersburg with petition for
reforms
 “Bloody Sunday”- Crowd met by troops who fired upon crowd
 Event turned working class against Tsar Nicholas II
• Events of 1905 included strikes, peasant uprisings,
revolts among ethnic minorities, and troop mutinies
• General Strike of October of 1905 paralyzed Russian
economy and industry
 Tsar Nicholas II issued October Manifesto- granted full civil rights
and promised popularly elected legislature (Duma)
 Manifesto split liberal (Working class) and conservative (middle
class) forces
The Duma under Nicholas II
• Duma drafts new constitution- The
Fundamental Laws
Tsar exercised executive powers, including
veto
Duma dismissed by Nicholas II due to
opposition to Tsar’s policies
• By 1914- Russia was an established
conservative constitutional monarchy with
a peasant based, but industrializing
economy
Great Britain in the late 19th Century
• Peaceful political evolution from classical
liberalism towards full-fledged democracy
• Accurate synopsis?
 1832 Reform Bill extended suffrage
 John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty- discussed importance of
protecting individual liberties during times of electoral
expansionism
 1884 Reform Bill- Universal male suffrage
Nature of British Politics
• Conservatism vs. Liberalism in British politics
 Court decisions ruled against labor unions
 H of C passed “People’s Budget” (welfare programs)
 Ascension of Liberal Party in British politics overcame
aristocratic conservatism
• David Lloyd George- leading Liberal Party
member
 Advocated taxing the rich to pay for social benefits for
masses (welfare state)
The Irish Problem
• Potential Civil War- England slow to make needed
reforms to lessen oppression
 Bills to introduce self-govt. to Ireland failed to pass
 Irish supported Liberal party seeking favorable legislationsuccessful as home rule established
• But- Religious conflict within Ireland b/w Catholics
(Southern Ireland) and Protestants (Northern IrelandUlsterites) blocked attempts to reform




Ulsterites raised army of 100k to block attempt at home rule
Compromise bill that applied only to S. Ireland rejected
Irish question postponed by WWI in 1914
Nationalism prevented progress!!
Jewish Emancipation
• 1848- turning point in Jewish life in Europe
 Gained civil rights in France & Germany
 Momentum continued thru 1850’s- 70’s during
conservative reaction
 1871 German Constitution abolished all forms of
Jewish discriminatory laws
• Impact of “Freedom”:
 Entered free market economy as professionals and
entrepreneurs
 Increased social mobility
 Nationalism for respective nation states
Modern Anti-Semitism
• Theodore Herzl- Jewish German nationalist who
promoted idea of Zionism for Jews in midst of
Ant- Semitic revival following financial panics of
1870’s and 1890’s
 Zionism- Safe haven for religiously oppressed
groups- sought independent Jewish state
 Modern Anti-Semitism- when govts funnel political
and economic discontent thru Anti-Semitic channels,
especially in E. Europe and Russia
Marxism & the Socialist Movement
• Question facing Europe- how did socialism fit into
nationalist theories and support to nation state?
• Growth in numbers of socialist followers following events
of 1870 resulted in The Socialist Internationalconfederation of national socialist parties
 In midst of failed political revolutions of 1848, Marx wrote in Das
Capital (1867) that revolution would surely follow economic crisis
 May Day- May 1st designated as international strike day by
working class as symbolic of working class demands
 Many feared that increased solidarity and membership growth
would result in ultimate Marxian objective- WORLDWIDE
REVOLUTION by the PROLATARIAT
Unions and Revisionism
• Socialism not marked by gross radicalism, but thru moderation




Suffrage replaced revolution as a means to progress and change
Nationalism transcended class antagonisms
Lack of clear agenda
Overall increased standard of living and quality of life
• Growth of moderate labor unions demonstrated that workers not
seeking radical revolutionary change
 Concentrated on tangible goals
 Successful collective bargaining agreements favored German industrial
workers
• Marxian Revisionism- belief that Marxist ideas should be updated to
reflect the times
 Advocated gradual evolution for working class demands rather that
outright Revolution
Chapter Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Describe the impact of nationalism on Louis
Napoleon's 2nd Republic.
Discuss how Italy was able to overcome regional
differences for unification.
Analyze the evolution of Prussia as a great power in
19th century Europe.
Explain the challenges facing France during the 3rd
Republic.
Assess the causes for the evolution of democracy in
Great Britain.
Although Marxian ideology spread via political
influence in 19th century Europe, it never evolved into
international revolution. Why?
Chapter Essay Question
1. Describe the impact of Nationalism on
the affairs of 2 of the following 4
countries in 19th century Europe:




Italy
Germany
France
Russia