Development of periodical
press and other media in
totality.
L6
Ing. Jiří Šnajdar
2014
Censorship is institutionally and politically supported
intervention of state power in authorial intention or in
information flow, forced intervention in authors´ and
publishers´ rights. Is divided into preliminary
(prevention), consequential (repressive) and running
(continuous).
Also it is possible to follow the phase of
communication process, where the censorship is
performed. It can be aimed at : communicator, often
author, publication and recipient. Often used selfcensorship is named as result of indirect pressure on
author.
3
Roots of censorship practice reach to Rome and
beginning of Christianity in Europe. Censorship is also
the base of inquisition, what proclaims the bull of pope
Inocence VIII. dedicated to sorceresses´ persecution
and especially its operating manual so called:
The Hammer of Witches.
In the year 1559 the pope Pavel IV. published for the
first time list of forbidden texts in Index Librorum
prohibitorum, which restricted communication until its
last revision in the year 1948 canceled only in the year
1967.
4
Protestantism did not bring fundamental change in
realisation of censorhips´ activities – after
consolidation of their positions moved the Protestant
authorities in the similar ways as Catholic. In Europe
increased the censorship proceedings after invention
of typography and the freedom in expressing became
a political theme.
In the Czech crown region copied the censorship
development in the European trends. Media
censorship is actually enforced only with development
of Czech newspapers from the end of 18th century.
5
In the year 1848 was the censorship cancelled by law,
but after repression of revolution ideas returned the
state authority to well-tried methods.
6
The absolutist law of May 1851 was in December
1862 replaced with a liberal law, which was modified
in the years 1868 and 1894 and after the year 1918
assumed it newly developed Czechoslovak republic
and with some peripetia, caused by national
pressures, was this modification used until 1939.
In the period between wars became the journalist
profession professional, in the year 1926 is
established Czech Journalists Syndicate in the head
is Jiří Pichl, from the year 1927 publishes professional
bulletins and magazines.
7
Management and media control from beginning of
occupation was closely connected with practice of
second republic. The censorship performed officials of
press supervisory service (press government
department, later ministry of school and public
cultivation) installed directly in editors and connected
to district or police offices.
Media came under a group for press of culturalpolitical department of Office of the Reich Protector.
Important element was in media Czech activism as a
ideological and political course of tendency to politics
of nazi German. It appeared already in the period of
so called second republic.
8
Its keystone was belief, that only through the most
active cooperation with the empire, as the dominate
contiguous great power, and leaning to its Nazi
ideology it is possible to reach some political targets.
After the war was renewed validity of laws and rules
from the time before 1938, but political parties did not
enforce previous censorship practice. So from the
May 1945 de facto did not exist any censorship.
After the state revolution in February 1948 caught the
communists together with authority also regulation
and control of media.
9
The censorship appears in all societies – also in the
most developed democracies.
In non-democratic societies is pervasive and
totalitarian interpretation stresses its protective
function.
At present is again discussed the possibility to
influence content and formal quality of internet
mainly with consideration to childern´ and youths´
education and accessibility of pornography.
10
After Munich agreement in March 1939 was
established Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.
Media are for 6 years under occupation administration,
some of them are cancelled. Listening of all foreign
radio stations is forbidden. Important is especially BBC
broadcasting (Jan Masaryk) and Voice of America
(Hofmeister, Voskovec, Werich, Ježek).
After the war was weaken the democratic character of
the country already as the result of Kosice
government program. According to notice of Ministry
of information cannot be the publisher of periodicals a
private person.
11
The censorship authority developed only five years
after revolution – under the name Main Administration
of press supervision. In the second half of sixtieth
years of the 20th century was also reorganisation of
control system.
New communists approach to media management
culminated in summer 1968 with acceptance of a law,
which marked the censorship as inadmissible. But
after occupation of the Czechoslovakia in August
1968 was established again and was found Office for
Press and Information.
12
Number of issued journals decreases to less than
one fifth of the number before war and after the
revolution in 1948 issue in the Czechoslovakia only
13 journals.
Altogether after the year 1948 is stopped 570 titles,
occurs first wave of emigration – Tigrid and Peroutka.
During next decades comes step by step to some
liberalisation - not only in the Czechoslovakia, but in
whole Europe (criticism of Stalin) and new titles start
to issue, for example Evening Prague but also
Creation, Culture, Economic newspaper, professional
magazines, Flowers, Porcupine, Pioneer, Campfire,
The Literary Newspaper and others. Culmination in
our conditions was Prague Spring.
13
The first signal in mass media, that there are
structural changes in the society, brought medial
discussions to still taboo themes – for example
necessity of freedom in utterance for democratic
organisation of society, objective description of
congress Association of writers in June 1967 and
students´ demonstrations in Prague at Strahov.
In June 1968 was cancelled censorship and was
published text Two thousand words. Progressive
break-up of ideological tongs of socialism including
control of media was interrupted by intervention of
military powers of Warsaw Pact and its
consequences.
14
Again are cancelled popular titles (Týdeník aktualit,
Listy, Reportér, Dialog, Impuls, Plamen, My 69) and is
next wave of emigration of journalists.
After relatively short period of release started again
disappear hundreds of names of authors, whose
publications were cast out form libraries and school
books and some of elite members stopped to exist
openly - normalisation regime not only deleted their
work from public knowledge, but started to liquidate
them and expel to the side of society by sacking from
the work, restrictions of activities and lasting bullying.
15
In the time of normalisation especially dissent
formulated some appeals to official regime, for
example Charta 77 and opened letter A few
sentences, exhorting for changes and democracy.
In mind of normalisation worked also professional
organisation Czech Union of Journalists and all official
press and broadcasting media.
Probably the only one positive of this time period was
really very high quality of programmes for children, to
its apolitical creating fallen the best performers.
16
Till today is also discussed quality and undisputed
spectatorial attraction of normalisation TV series.
On one side were influenced by socialist ideology
and false morality, on the contrary verged on with
kitsch (The youngest of the family Hamry, District in
the north Thirty Cases of Major Zeman etc.).
17
Musty communist establishment in the
Czechoslovakia resisted in the 80th even more or less
opened the release coming from East – perestrojka
and Gorbacov.
But after some peripetia was the situation
indefensible, passed off demonstrations in August
1988 and in January 1898 and lastly the events in
November.
18
United Kingdom
The department's functions were threefold: news and
press censorship; home publicity; and overseas
publicity in Allied and neutral countries. Planning for
such an organisation, largely conducted in secret, had
started in October 1935 under the auspices of the
Committee for Imperial Defence. While the
government was publicly admitting the inevitability of
war, propaganda was still tainted by the experience of
the First World War, when several different bodies
had been responsible for propaganda and
information.
19
United Kingdom
By early 1939 there was concern that the next war
would be a 'war of nerves' involving the civilian
population, and that the government would need to go
further than ever before with every means of publicity
'utilised and co-ordinated', as it fought against a wellfunded and established Nazi machine. The Ministry
was formed on 4 September 1939, the day after
Britain's declaration of war.
20
United Kingdom
Threatened by censorship, the press reacted
negatively to the MOI, describing it as shambolic and
disorganised, and as a result it underwent many
structural changes throughout the war, with four
Ministers heading the MOI in quick succession: Lord
Hugh Macmillan, Sir John Reith and Duff Cooper,
before the Ministry settled down under Brendan
Bracken in July 1941. Supported by Prime Minister
Winston Churchill and the press, Bracken remained in
office until victory was obvious.
21
United Kingdom
The Ministry was responsible for information policy
and the output of propaganda material in Allied and
neutral countries, with overseas publicity organised
geographically. American and Empire Divisions
continued throughout the war, other areas being
covered by a succession of different divisions. The
MOI was not, in general, responsible for propaganda
in enemy and enemy-occupied countries, but it did
liaise directly with the Foreign Office.
22
Germany
Censorship in Germany was implemented by the
Ministry of propaganda, Minister of Propaganda,
Joseph Goebbels. All media—literature, music,
newspapers, and public events—were censored.
Attempts were also made to postal censorship,
censor private communications, such as mail and
even private conversation, with mixed results.
23
Germany
The aim of censorship under the Nazi regime was
simple: to reinforce Nazi power and to suppress
opposing viewpoints and information. Punishments
ranged from banning of presentation and publishing of
works to deportation, imprisonment, or even
execution or a Internment in Concentration camp.
24
Germany
"The chief function of propaganda is to convince the
masses, whose slowness of understanding needs to
be given time so they may absorb information; and
only constant repetition will finally succeed in
imprinting an idea on their mind.“
25
West Germany 1945—1990
Federal Republic of Germany
During the post World War II period, the West Germany,
West German media was subject to censorship by the
Allies,Allied military occupational forces. Criticism of the
occupational forces and of the emerging government
were not tolerated. Publications which were expected to
have a negative effect on the general public were not
printed. A list of over 30,000 titles, including works by
such authors as Carl von Clausewitz, was drawn up. All
the millions of copies of these books were to be
confiscated and destroyed. The representative of the
Military Directorate admitted that the order in principle
was no different from the previous government.
26
West Germany 1945—1990
Federal Republic of Germany
The representative of the Military Directorate admitted
that the order in principle was no different from the
previous government.
When the official government, the Federal Republic of
Germany , ''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'' took over,
these limits were relaxed. The new German
constitution guaranteed freedom of press, speech,
and opinion.
27
Federal Republic of Germany
An Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien,
index of harmful materials, listed those subjects and
materials which are restricted in publishing and
exhibition. These restrictions focused largely on
material which could be harmful to minor (law) minors,
and included protections of personal dignity. Materials
written or printed by organizations ruled to be anticonstitutional, such as Nazism organizations or the
Red Army Faction (Baader-Meinhof Gang), were
placed on the index.
28
East Germany (1945—1990)
Censorship in East Germany
Censorship in the former German Democratic
Republic , ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' was
widely implemented. Licenses were required to
publish any material, and permission was required to
exhibit or perform any visual art. In addition,
journalists without government approval were not
hired. Censorship was implemented both before and
after publication of a work.
29
East Germany (1945—1990)
Censorship in East Germany
The primary goal of East German censorship was to
protect the interests of communism and its
implementation. Works critical of the East German or
Soviet Union governments were forbidden, as were
any works which seemed sympathetic to fascism.
30
USA
Sedition Act of 1918
The Sedition Act of 1918 , enacted May 16, 1918
was an Act of the United States Congress that
extended the Espionage Act of 1917 to cover a
broader range of offenses, notably speech and the
expression of opinion that cast the government or the
war effort in a negative light or interfered with the sale
of government bonds.
31
USA
It forbade the use of "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or
abusive language" about the United States
government, its flag, or its armed forces or that
caused others to view the American government or its
institutions with contempt. Those convicted under the
act generally received sentences of imprisonment for
5 to 20 years. The act also allowed the Postmaster
General to refuse to deliver mail that met those same
standards for punishable speech or opinion. It applied
only to times "when the United States is in war."
32
USA
Most U.S. newspapers "showed no antipathy toward the
act" and " far from opposing the measure, the leading
papers seemed actually to lead the movement in behalf
of its speedy enactment.„
Congress repealed the Sedition Act on December 13,
1920.
In general, censorship in the United States, which
involves the suppression of speech or other public
communication, raises issues of freedom of speech,
which is constitutionally protected by the First
Amendment to the United States Constitution.
33
USA
This freedom, though fundamental, has also been
accompanied since its enshrinement with contest and
controversy. For instance, restraints increased during
periods of widespread anti-communist sentiment, as
exemplified by the hearings of the House Committee on
Un-American Activities. It is also legal to express certain
forms of hate speech so long as one does not engage in
the acts being discussed, or urge others to commit illegal
acts.
34
USA
However, more severe forms have led to people or
groups such as the Ku Klux Klan being denied certain
marching permits or the Westboro Baptist Church being
sued, though the initially adverse ruling against the latter
was later overturned on appeal in the US Supreme
Court. Some recent laws have restricted forms of hate
speech, however.
Certain forms of speech, such as obscenity and
defamation, are restricted in major media outlets by the
government or by the industry on its own.
35
Russia
After the fall of the monarchy and the collapse of the
empire, the institution of censorship was preserved,
though transformed. In the words of Pavel Reifman:
"Soviet censorship did not come out of nowhere. It was
the successor of the pre-revolutionary Russian
censorship, the censorship of a centuries-old autocratic
Russia".
On March 9, 1917, the Provisional Government
eliminated the main center of tsarist censorship—the
Main Committee on Matters of the Press—and
introduced the post of Commissar on Matters of the
Press.
36
Russia
On May 16 the Bulletin of the Provisional
Government published the legislative decree stating:
"The press and the trade of printed works are free. It is
not allowed to apply administrative penalties to the
press."
In reality, such freedom was never fully achieved. Pyotr
Wrangel wrote that with the freedom given to left-wing
propaganda, right-wing newspapers were closed down
and confiscated.
37
Russia
Subsequently, in response to the crisis of the July Days,
the government gave the minister of war the right to
close publications that called for military rebellion and
disobedience on the front, which led to the repression of
Bolshevik newspapers.
38
Russia
Censorship in the Soviet Union was pervasive and
strictly enforced.
Censorship was performed in two main directions:
State secrets were handled by Main Administration for
Safeguarding State Secrets in the Press (also known as
Glavlit) was in charge of censoring all publications and
broadcasting for state secrets Censorship, in accordance
with the official ideology and politics of the Communist
Party was performed by several organizations:
39
Russia
Works of print such as the press, advertisements,
product labels, and books were censored by Glavlit, an
agency established on June 6, 1922, to safeguard top
secret information from foreign entities.
From 1932 until 1952, the promulgation of socialist
realism was the target of Glavlit in works of print, while
Anti-Westernization and nationalism were common
tropes for that goal.
40
Russia
To limit peasant revolts over the „Holodomor“, themes
involving shortages of food were expunged. In the 1932
book “Russia Washed in Blood,” a Bolshevik’s harrowing
account of Moscow’s devastation from the October
revolution contained the description, “frozen rotten
potatoes, dogs eaten by people, children dying out,
hunger,” but was promptly deleted.
41