Religious Traditions in the
Roman Empire
1.
Esoteric Wisdom Literature
2. Egypt, Judea, Persia
3. 2. Wonder healers
Religious options in the Roman
Empire
Wide variety; embracing two broad
categories:  1. esoteric wisdom (can be understood
by only a few initiates; was exotic and
mysterious; included magic
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2. cults with claims to special connection
with divine.
Esoteric wisdom literature
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Pseudoepigrapha (writings with false attribution)
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= form of literature published under a particular
name (i.e. Pythagoras, 6th century BC
philosopher) but written by other authors
widespread phenomenon in Graeco-Roman
antiquity
 Played important role in spreading ‘oriental’
wisdom
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The Egyptian tradition
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Very attractive - hieroglyphs were mysterious in
themselves; enormous antiquity
Exotic representation of gods (animal heads)
Temple ceremonies hidden from ordinary eyes
A secretive priestly caste trained in millennia-old
traditions kept secret from ordinary people
Egyptian priests capitalized on Graeco-Roman fascination
with all things Egyptian – worked as free-lance wise men
and wonder workers
Became stock characters in literature: Zatchlas in
Apuleius calls back the soul of a dead man (2.28)
Zatchlas - an Egyptian prophet
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“ We have here in Zatchlas of Egypt a prophet of
the first rank. He has already agreed with me a
large fee to bring back the soul of the deceased
from the Underworld for a short while and
restore his body to life.” So saying he led
forward a young man dressed in a linen tunic
and palm-leaf sandals with his head shaved
bare. Repeatedly he kissed the man’s hands and
touched his knees in supplication. ‘Have pity, O
Priest,’ he said, ‘ have piety by the stars of
heaven, by the infernal powers, by the natural
elements, …. (Apuleius, The Golden Ass 2.28)
Out of Egypt
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Cult of Isis widely popular in part because of its Egyptian
elements
Temples with ostentatious Egyptian décor, priests of cult
shaved heads, wore linen robes of traditional Egyptian
priests
Large collection of texts in Greek claiming to transmit
ancient Egyptian wisdom
pseudepigrapha were associated with Hermes
Trismegistos (Thrice-Greatest-Hermes) = Greek name for
Egyptian god Thoth
Most famous of these ‘Hermetic’ texts deal with nature
of cosmos and role of humanity (later popular with
philosophers of the Italian Rennaissance)
Hermetic texts deal with wide variety of topics: spells,
rituals, astrology, alchemy, medicine,
Temple of Isis in Philae (Egypt)
Temple of Isis in Pompeii
Judaean Tradition
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Similar appeal as Egyptian tradition: exotic customs,
enormous antiquity, sacred scriptures written in strange,
mysterious language
had distinctive philosophical appeal (like early Greek
philosophy) criticizing Greek tradition about gods,
especially anthropomorphism and gods’ immoral actions.
Had developed concept of divine as beyond human
understanding: divine was perfect and good, remote, yet
deeply concerned with human morality
Note: Judaean tradition conformed to the philosophical
conception of the divine as developed by the Greek
philosophers
Judaean tradition
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Centrality of scripture in Judaean tradition – well suited to the
creation of pseudepigrapha
Popular genres in the Roman period:
revelations received by a notable figure of Israelite past
apocalypse (from Greek: apokalypsis = uncovering), concerned with
secrets of heavenly realm, divine judgment, end of world
Early example = Book of Daniel; later works written under names of
Enoch, Abraham, Baruch, Ezra.
Primary audience members of Judaean tradition
Other pseudegrapha represent more widespread esoteric traditions:
astrological treatise under name of Shem (one of the sons of Noah);
spells and ritual lore often ascribed to Moses or Solomon
Example: The Eighth Book of Moses provide directions for complex
ritual intended to cause the supreme god of the cosmos to appear
before the person who performs it
PGM IV.850-929,
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Charm of Solomon that produces a trance (works both on boys
and on adults):
I swear to you by the holy gods and the heavenly gods not to share
the procedure of Solomon with anyone and certainly not to use it
for something questionable unless a matter of necessity forces you,
lest perchance wrath be preserved for you.
Formula to be spoken:[ formula ] …Hear me, that is, my holy
voice, because I call upon your holy names, and reveal to me
concerning the things which I want, through the NN man or little
boy, for otherwise I will not defend your holy and undefiled
name…Come to me through the NN man or little boy and tell me
accurately since I speak your names which thrice-greatest Hermes
wrote in Heliopolis with hieroglyphic letters ….formula…
Persian Tradition
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Persian sage Zoroaster the most prominent –
wide range of texts, including astrology
Ostanes, asociated with treatises on alchemy
and occult, the uses of plants and gems
Hystspes, the supposed author of an
apocalypse
Astrampsychos, credited with popular do-ityourself book of oracles
Cult of Mithras, ancient Iranian deity Mithra,
worship survived in Asia Minor into Roman
period; became popular mystery cult especially
with Roman soldiers
Cult of Mithras
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Unusual cult: no public elements, no temples, all cult
activities restricted to male initiates
Small group of all male initiates met in underground
chambers for communal meal and cult ceremonies; very
popular among Roman soldiers
Initiates passed through a hierarchy of seven grades:
one was called ‘Persian’
Chief decoration of meeting place was depiction of
Mithras killing a bull and dressed in stereotyped
“Persian” clothing: long trousers, full tunic with long
sleeves, and so-called “Phrygian” cap. No textual
sources for relief.
Mithras
Divinely inspired religious leaders
Every person could pray and make offerings and even
interact with gods through oracles, dreams, visions
 Some people claimed a special connection with the
divine which gave them special insights and abilities;
were considered superior to ordinary mortals by their
followers; credited with abilities to perform miracles and
inspired teachings
 Source difficulties: accounts grew more elaborate over
time; surviving accounts are either completely positive or
completely negative;
 Many were highly controversial figures;
 Roman elite perceived them as threat to their religious
authority.
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Jesus of Nazareth
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By far the most famous and most controversial of religious leaders
Our knowledge comes almost entirely from accounts of his sayings
and deeds (gospels) that circulated among his followers.
Most scholars agree, earliest accounts were composed 40 years
after his death; impossible to determine which elements go back to
historical Jesus, and what are later ideas of his followers.
Christian sources depict Jesus as wonder-worker, healing the sick,
casting out demons, even raising the dead;
As moral teacher who emphasized compassion for poor and outcast;
As prophet of a coming ‘Kingdom of God”, and as himself as divine.
Sources for historical Jesus:
Paul of Tarsus ( 5-67 CE)
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Few non-Christian sources survived; Jesus wrote nothing;
Evidence that he raised strong opposition: Tacitus, Annals 15.44.3: “in the
reign of Tiberius he was executed by the procurator Pontius Pilatus”.
Paul of Tarsus (town in Cilicia) originally opponent of Jesus followers; had r
religious experience which he interpreted as revelation of Jesus Christ,
presented himself as Christ’s divinely appointed representative to nonJudaeans (Paul, Letter to Galatians 1.11-17)
One of few we have first-hand evidence of; wrote letters to followers in Asia
Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Rome (although some Pauline letters are
clearly pseudepigrapha).
Central message of Paul’s letters: faith in Christ would free people from
control of certain negative forces, usually identified as sin, but sometimes
associated with external superhuman powers.
Author of Acts of Apostles depicts Paul as a wonder-worker, striking a rival
with blindness (13.6-12), driving out demons (16.16-18) Executed by Roman authorities in early 67 CE
Apollonius of Tyana
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Wandering Pythagorean philosopher in 1st century CE
Have account of his life by Philostratus, early 3rd century
CE: depicted as ascetic who rejected animal sacrifice and
eating of meat; as moral teacher and religious reformer,
as wonder-worker who could prophesy future, drive
away evil spirits, raise the dead.
Was arrested and tried before the Emperor Domitian,
and is said to have simply ‘vanished’ from the courtroom
and reappeared to his followers in another city. Note
how new myths developed.
His followers regarded him as theios = god-like
Opponents call him magos and a quack
Common characteristics of
Divinely inspired religious leaders
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Figures present differences but also similarities
had religious authority but did not hold official
priesthoods
believed to have privileged access to divine power and
knowledge
Overlap between claims to special connections to divine
and esoteric traditions (mysterious/known by few
initiates/magic)
example: Apollonius was a follower of Phythagoras and
was said to have visited ‘oriental sages’; Jesus and Paul
were exponents of Judaean traditions;
All had distinct appeal and provided distinctive religious
options
What did they have to offer?
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We have very little evidence to determine Roman’s
spiritual needs, but evidence tells us what religious
options, the various cults, had to offer
1. alternative and more effective ways of addressing
concerns (including health) than traditional religion
2. intensification of traditional religious experience; a
more profound encounter with divine, or unusually
intimate relationship with deity that provided special
blessings in life and after death
3. new models of the cosmos and new understanding of
human role within it; provided new types of salvation
previously unknown.
Often they offered all three categories
Alternative and more effective
traditional benefits
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Tacitus, Annals 12.22
“Agrippina hated Lollia Paulina who was a rival for the emperor’s
hand, and Agrippina was a relentless enemy. In this same year she
found an accuser to prosecute Lollia. The charges were association
with Chaldaean astrologers and magicians, and the consultation of
Apollo’s statue at Clarus concerning Claudius’ marriage. The
emperor did not give the defendant a hearing. He himself spoke at
length about her noble connections, ..her mother, sister of Lucius
Volusius Saturninus, ……but he added that her projects were a
national danger and that her potentialities for mischief must be
eliminated . She must….have her property confiscated and leave
Italy.”
Note: both traditional and alternative methods were applied in this
case : Chaldaeans, magi, and highly respectable Greek oracle of
Apollo all were forms of divination.
concerns for health
major reason for turning to the gods
 Equally prominent in alternative religious
options
 Greek Magical Papyri (a book of spells
compiled 3rd century CE) include
prescriptions for treating a wide range of
illnesses, including scorpion stings,
headache, cough, swollen testicles, fever ,
etc.
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A prayer for the ‘wandering womb’
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“I conjure you, O Womb, by the one established
over the Abyss, before heaven, earth, sea, light,
or darkness came to be; who created the
angels, being foremost, amichamchou and
chouchao cheroei oueiacho odou proseiogges,
and who sit above the cherubim …that you
return again to your seat…Hallelujah! Amen!’
Write this on a tin tablet and clothe it in seven
colours.’” (PGM VII.260-71)
Powers of Healing
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Power of healing often attributed to those with special
connections to the divine: Gospel of Mark recounts how
Jesus healed a leper (1.40), a paralytic (2.1-12), man
with a withered arm (3.1-5), woman with hemorrhages
(5.25-34), etc., similar feats by Peter’
Apollonius of Tyana said to have healed a lame man, a
blind man, and a paralytic (Philostratus, Life of
Apollonius of Tyana 3.39); also foretold a plague at
Ephesus and could later identify the demonic source
(many people believed malevolent spirits as cause for
illness, especially mental illness
Advice and insight into future
Another major reason to turn to both
traditional and alternative religions
 Greek Magical Papyri spells include
instruction for – direct visions, dream
oracles, lamp divination, saucer divination,
or (Solomon example earlier) a boy or
man is put into trance to act as
mouthpiece of god to give advice and
foretell the future)
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Other (not so friendly) reasons for
turning to alternative religions
Unacceptable aims included to constrain or harm
opponents/rivals, or inspire sexual passion in
someone
 Binding spells, both present in magical papyri
and in curse tablets (small lead sheets inscribed
with ritual formulae and placed underground,
sometimes in a grave.
 Example, binding spells on favoured sports team
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Spell on a chariot team
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“ you holy angels, ambush and restrain
them, now attack, bind, overturn, cut up
chop into pieces the horses and the
charioteers of the Blue colors (trans. Gager
1992: no. 5)
Sexual desire
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Many examples in magical papyri and curse tablets of
spells were intended to attract a desired person.
A curse tablet recording a prayer of a woman who tried
to win back a man who broke up with her:
“I invoke you, spirit (daimonion) who lies here, by the
holy name the god of Abraham and the god of Jacob,
god of Israma, hear the honored, dreadful, and great
name, go away to Urbanus, to whom Urbana gave birth
and bring him to Domitiana, to whom Candida gave
birth, so that loving, frantic, and sleepless with love and
desire for her, he may beg her to return to his house and
become his wife” (trans. Gager 1992: no. 36)