• Recall that all organisms reproduce either sexually or asexually
– Sexual- there is a combining of genes from 2 parents but NOT always with egg and sperm
(meiosis followed by fertilization)
– Asexual- the offspring are reproduced by copying the DNA of one parent (binary fission or budding)

• All plants are multicellular
• Their cells have a cell wall-cellulose
• Autotrophs-make own carbs for energy through photosynthesis
• Can reproduce sexually, asexually, or both

• Sunlight
• Water
• Vitamins/Minerals
• Gas Exchange
(O
2 and CO
2
)
• A method of transport to move water and other materials to all parts of plant.

• Phototropism- a method of homeostasis and response to a light stimulus in which the direction of growth is determined by the direction of the light source.
• Can plants move?

• Two alternating phases:
1)
Diploid Phase—2 copies of all genes (Sporophyte)
-Sporophyte makes spores by meiosis.
-Spores develop into gametophyte form of plant.
2) Haploid Phase– 1 copy of all genes (Gametophyte)
-Gametophyte produces male and female gametes by mitosis—makes more haploid cells.
-Gametes eventually join to form sporophyte.

• Ancestors of 1 st plants were multicellular green algae.
• Plants have evolved specific adaptations to help them survive in a variety of different climates.
• There are four major groups of plants which are separated by three distinct features:
1. Water conducting tissue (vascular).
2. Seeds
3. Flowers

Green Algae Ancestor

NO
VASCULAR
TISSUE
1. Bryophytes (Moss)
2. Pteridophytes (Ferns)
VASCULAR
TISSUE
3. Gymnosperms (Cone bearing plants)
4. Angiosperms (Flowering plants)

•Vascular- internal transportation system
• Xylem – water carrying tubes
• Phloem – sugar carrying tissues
• Enabled plants to evolve into larger specimens.
• Pteridophytes (Ferns), angiosperms and gymnosperms are all vascular

• Simplest of all land dwelling plants
•Bryophytes
•Nonvascular (no “veins”)-lack an internal means for water transportation
•Obtain/transfer water by osmosis
•Grow moist, shaded areas
•No true roots, leaves, stems
•Rhizoids anchor plant to ground

NO
SEEDS
1. Bryophytes (Moss)
2. Pteridophytes (Ferns)
SEED
PLANTS
3. Gymnosperms (Cone bearing plants)
• Form seeds in “cones.”
4. Angiosperms (Flowering plants)
• Form seeds inside of “flowers.”

• Seed plants do not require water for reproduction like mosses so can live in most environments
• Seed plants produce “pollen” which is the male gamete and ovaries (ovules) which are female
• Pollen is extremely small and light and is easily carried by wind or small animals

• Plant gametes: Egg and sperm (pollen) of plant join together to form seed
• Seeds are embryos of seed plants encased in a protective coating and surrounded by a food supply.

• Do not produce seeds, but have egg and sperm only which must meet to form a new bryophyte.
•Require water for fertilization to transport gametes

• No seeds—have egg and sperm join and produce spores
• Contain vascular tissue
• 1 st true land plants

– Means “naked seed”
– Oldest vascular, seedproducing plants

• Seeds are exposed
• Most common are “conifers”
(spruce, firs, pines, etc.).
• Most have needles instead of leaves.
• Most conifers are “evergreens” meaning they keep their needles (leaves) year round .

• Angiosperms
Means “enclosed seed”
– Flowering
– Most common of all land plants

NO
FLOWERS
1. Bryophytes (Moss)
2. Pteridophytes (Ferns)
FLOWERS
3. Gymnosperms (Cone bearing plants)
• Form seeds in “cones.”
4. Angiosperms (Flowering plants)
• Form seeds inside of “flowers.”

• Angiosperms are the only flowering plants
• Flowers attract animals to support pollination
(very efficient)
• Seeds develop inside ovary within a “flower”
• After “fertilization” seed within flower develops into “fruit”
• Angiosperms are typically classified in two groups:
1. Monocots
2. Dicots

• Annuals- survive one season
• Biennials- take 2 years to complete life cycle
• Perennials- live many years

•All animals are:
— Multicellular: cells lacking a cell wall
— Heterotrophs
— Capable of movement at some point in their lives.
— 95% of all animals are invertebrates

• Skeletal Characteristics
– Invertebrates -have a hard external skeleton made of chitin known as an exoskeleton
– Vertebrates have a hard internal skeleton made of bone or cartilage

• Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Major phylums of animals are…

l e x c o m p r e
M o
• Nine major phyla of animals:
1. Poriferans (sponges)
2. Cnidarians (jellyfish)
3. Flatworms (tapeworm)
4. Roundworms (heartworm)
5. Annelids (earthworm)
6. Mollusks (clam)
7. Arthropod (grasshopper)
8. Echinoderm (starfish)
9. Chordate (human)
Invertebrates

• Porifera
– Sponges
– Invertebrates
– Sponges are filter feeders and depend on the movement of water to obtain nutrients/oxygen
– Digestion is intracellular –no stomach
– Reproduce asexually by budding or sexually through egg and sperm

• Cnidarians
– Jellyfish, corals, and other stingers. . . Their stinger is called a nematocyst
– Invertebrates
– Belizes coral reef

• Mollusks
– Octopi, squid, clams, oysters, snails, slugs
– Invertebrates
– Reproduce sexually
– Cool Octopus video

• Platyhelminthes (flat worms)
– Tapeworms & Liver Fluke & Planaria
– Hermaphrodites-fertilize their own sex cells internally then zygotes are released into water to hatch
– Invertebrates
– Sexual or asexual reproduction
Human liver fluke

• Nematodes (roundworms)
– Heartworms, hookworm, pinworms
– One of the most diverse animal phyla
– Many are parasites
– Sexual reproduction

• Annelids (segmented worms)
– Worms & leeches
– Invertebrates
– Worms mating

• Echinoderms
– Starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers
– They have a hard exoskeleton under their skin
– Invertebrates

• Arthropods
– Shell fish, arachnids & BUGS!
– Invertebrates—have exoskeleton
– Reproduce sexually

• Chordates
– All other animals that have a backbone of some form
– Vertebrates

1. Specialized cells and organs
2. Bilateral body symmetry
3. A definite head with sensory organs
(cephalization)
4. A body cavity
5. Complex embryonic development

• The more complex the animal, the more
“specialized” its cells become.
• Cells  Tissues  Organs  Organ system.
• Some animals have no organs!

• With the exception to sponges, every animal exhibits one of two types of body symmetry:
1. Radial symmetry
2. Bilateral symmetry

• Imaginary plane can pass through a central axis in any direction

• Single plane can divide the body into two equal halves
• Animals with bilateral symmetry have a right and left side and usually have segmented bodies

• Animals with bilateral symmetry have a definite head
• Cephalization is the concentration of sense organs and nerve cells in the anterior end (front end) of the body
• Animals with this trait tend to respond in more complex ways to their environment

• Most animals have a body cavity in which all major organs are attached. This area is called a coelom
• Provides room for organs to grow and expand
• Less complex animals do not have this area. They are called acoelomates

During gastrulation, cells begin to differentiate
(specialize).

Worms, mollusks, arthropods, etc. 
Chordates and Echinoderms 

• In protostomes (worms, mollusks, and arthropods), blastopore develops into mouth.
• In deuterostomes (echinoderms and chordates), blastopore develops into anus.
• Three layers of embryonic cells (germ layers):
1. Endoderm – Develops into digestive and respiratory tracts.
2. Mesoderm – Develops into muscles, heart, sex organs, and kidneys.
3. Ectoderm – Develops into brain, sense organs, and skin.