Individual Differences in
Independent Behaviour
Conformers and nonconformers!
Individual Differences
BATs
AO1 – Outline how gender and personality
influence conformity and obedience
Explain the importance of Locus of Control in
relation to independent behaviour
AO2 /3 – Analyse and evaluate research into
the role of gender and personality in
independent behaviour.
Homework – discuss the influence of individual
differences on independent behaviour. (12 marks)
Individual Differences
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Situational factors not the only explanation
for Independent Behaviour.
In Milgram’s research some people were
much more obedient than others regardless
of the situation.
Milgram –’I am certain there is a complex
personality basis to obedience and
disobedience, but I am certain that I have not
found it’
The Role of Personality
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Conformers/non-conformers - Crutchfield
(1955)
Locus of Control - Rotter (1966)
Attributional Style
Authoritarian personality – Elms and Milgram
(66)
Compliant personality – Gudjonsson (89)
Taken from http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/crutchfield-conformity.html
Crutchfield (1955) Conformity
Experiments
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Refined Asch’s technique – participants (5 at
a time) seated side by side in individual
booths. Forbidden to talk to each other. No
confeds.
100 military and businessmen, all male,
average age 34, coming from a variety of
educational backgrounds
Various multiple choice questions projected
onto the wall in front of the men
Crutchfield (1955) Conformity
Experiments
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Findings – On questions relating to
judgements and factual questions 30%
conformed to the wrong answer when they
thought that others were giving that answer.
37% of army personnel agreed with the
statement ‘ I doubt whether I would make a
good leader’.
When tested privately none of them agreed
with this statement!
Taken from http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/crutchfield-conformity.html
Crutchfield (1955) Conformity
Experiments
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Crutchfield concluded that people conform
for a number of different reasons.
Take it in turns to go into the corridor and find
out what those reasons are, then fill in the
worksheet.
First team to finish gets a prize!!
Extension: What are the flaws in the design
of this experiment
Acknowledgements to Exploring Psychology p177
Authoritarian Personality
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Authoritarian Personality = politically
conservative, hostile, rigid morals, hate challenges to
authority or deviations from conventional social
behaviour.
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Are Authoritarians more conformist and
obedient? Read p177 and fill in worksheet
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Elms and Milgram (66) – compared the personality of
20 obedient and 20 disobedient ppts from the Milgram
expt using a test for Authoritarianism called the fascism
scale (Adorno et al 1950)
Authoritarian Personality
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Obedient group significantly higher in authoritarianism
than disobedient.
Fascism scale now old fashioned – Altemayer (81) used
a more reliable and valid scale called the RWA (right
wing authoritarianism) Scale.
Altemayer ordered ppts to give themselves shocks
when they got a learning task wrong.
Positive correlation was shown between
authoritarianism and the level of shock they were willing
to give.
Acknowledgements to Exploring Psychology p177
Compliant Personality
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Gudjonsson (89) proposed that compliance
is a personality characteristic.
2 factors make one person more compliant
than another .. Read p177/8 and fill in
worksheet
Eagerness to please
Avoidance of conflict
Acknowledgements to Exploring Psychology p177
Compliant Personality
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Gudjonsson (89) proposed that compliance is a
personality characteristic.
2 factors make one person more compliant than
another ..
Eagerness to please
Avoidance of conflict
Less likely to defy authority or deviate from the
majority, more likely to what they are told and follow
others
Acknowledgements to Exploring Psychology p178
Compliant Personality
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Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson (2003) suggest in
Milgram’s studies more compliant ppts showed the
highest levels of destructive obedience.
Gudjonsson and Mackeith (97) – examined the role
of compliance in false confessions of the
Birmingham Six (arrested in 1974)
Ordered to confess by police and beaten until 4
obeyed. Jailed from 75-90 until released on appeal.
Using the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale in prison
the 4 that confessed under police orders scored
higher for Compliance than the 2 that resisted.
Acknowledgements to Cardwell and
Flanagan – Complete Companion p164-5)
Rotter (1966) – Locus of Control
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Locus of control = sense of control a person
feels they have over their life/behaviour.
INTERNAL
EXTERNAL
Locus of Control
Person believes
their behaviour is
caused by their
own personal
decisions and
efforts.
Person believes
their behaviour is
caused primarily by
fate, luck or other
external
circumstances
Internal or External LOC?
Read these scenarios and decide if the person
is Internal or External.
Jenny always had her own ideas
about fashion. She worked hard at
school even when others in her
class were messing about. She
now has her own business as a
fashion designer
Freddie worked in a bank, but
has been out of work for 2 years.
He blames it on the credit crunch.
Every time he applies for a job he
says there are too many others
applying for the same job
Extension: Make
up scenarios of
your own to try
on your group!!
Rotter (1966) – Locus of Control
How does this relate to independent
behaviour?
High Internals ..
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active seekers of info useful to them, so less likely to
rely on opinions of others.
More achievement oriented, so more likely to become
leaders and entrepreneurs
Better able to resist coercion from others
Backed up by research by Anderson and Schneier
(78) – internals more likely to emerge as leaders in
groups
Twenge et al 2004 – are we becoming
more external?
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Meta analysis – young Americans
increasingly believe their lives are controlled
by outside forces rather than their own
behaviour.
Locus of control scores substantially more
external in children and student samples
between 1960 and 2002
Implications negative as externality is
correlated with poor school achievement, less
self control and depression.
Twenge et al 2004 – are we becoming
more external?
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Why is this happening?
Since 1960’s most Western countries have
seen dramatic social change e.g increases
in divorce rates, violent crime and mental
health problems including suicide.
Tenge et al suggest that these social factors
has seen an increase in externality, as young
people see many aspects of their lives as
beyond their control.
Acknowledgements to Cardwell and
Flanagan – Complete Companion p164-5)
Attributional Style
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Attributional Style = a personality attribute
that shows how people explain to
themselves why they experience a particular
event.
When people experience success or failure
they work out what the causes were and
learn from experience, thus developing their
own attributional style.
Attributional Style
Psychologists have identified 3 components to
Attributional Style …
 Personal (i.e dispositional v situational) – see
themselves as the cause of the event or may
attribute the cause to situational factors
 E.g ’I failed my A level because I’m stupid’
(dispositional, internal)
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‘I failed my a level because I used the wrong
text book.’ (Situational, external)
Attributional Style
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Psychologists have identified 3 components
to Attributional Style …
Permanent – (i.e. stable v unstable)
The person sees the situation as
unchangeable or changeable.
E.g. ‘It’s pointless retaking my A level, I’m
just going to fail again.’ (stable)
‘Next time it will be different’.
Attributional Style
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Psychologists have identified 3 components to
Attributional Style …
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Pervasive – (i.e. global v local)
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A person may see the situation affecting all aspects
of their life or just restricted to one event.
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E.g. ‘I can’t seem to do anything right.’ (global)
‘Never mind, I can concentrate on my other
subjects’. (local)
Attributional Style
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Negative Attributional Style – people who
generally blame themselves for negative
events. (Dispositional)
Positive Attributional Style – people who
blame others for negative events, Do not let
negative events affect too many aspects of
their lives and display positive explanatory
style (situational)
Attributional Style
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Positive Attributional Style –
This style more synonymous with
Independent Behaviour as the person is
able to resist the influence of negative life
experiences that might otherwise have an
adverse effect on how they approach similar
events in the future.
Attributional Style – Heaven et al (2005)
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Studied young Australians to see if there was any
association between attributional style and attitude to
school.
Found significant differences between conformist,
studious students and rebel students (rebelled
against teachers and failed to do homework).
Rebels scored highest on negative attributional style.
May be due to them failing academically or socially
in the past.
Acknowledgements to Cardwell and
Flanagan – Complete Companion p164-5)
Gender
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Linz and Semykina (2005) – data from a survey of
over 2,600 Russian employees between 200 and
2003.
Men more likely to have internal Locus of Control
and a need for challenge
Women more likely to exhibit external locus of
control and need for affiliation (belonging to a group).
High Internal females earned more than external
women
Acknowledgements to Holt – The study guide p121-2
Gender
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Milgram found no gender differences in
obedience, but Sheridan and King found
many more women than men would shock a
puppy when told to do so.
Females tend to conform more, especially in
face- to-face situations.
Eagly and Charvala (86) – no gender
differences below age 19, but a difference in
older ppts
Match the Personality type to the
definition
Authoritarian
Compliant
Internal Locus
of Control
External Locus
of Control
Positive
Attributional
Style
People do not let negative events affect too many
aspects of their lives. Tend to exhibit Independent
behaviour.
People feel they have influence and control over their
lives and are confident, positive, need little approval
from others. Less likely to conform or obey authority.
Politically conservative, rigid morals, hates challenges
to authority or deviations from conventional social
behaviour. Conformist and obedient
Eager to please and would rather avoid conflict.
Unlikely to defy authority or risk upsetting the majority
People feel things happen to them because of luck or
fate. Need approval and prone to normative social
influence. Likely to conform and obey authority.
Acknowledgements to Cardwell and
Flanagan – Complete Companion p164-5)
Try it out for yourself!!
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Design an investigation to compare locus of control
in males and females.
How will you collect scores anonymously?
What other ethical issues might there be?
How will you overcome these ethical issues?
Draw a graph to show your findings. What type?
Are there any gender differences?
What do you think this means (conclusion)
EXTENSION: Is it good to be internal? Why or why not?
How could you make someone more Internal?
Homework
Discuss the influence of individual
differences on independent behaviour.
(12 marks)
AO1 – Nature of Locus of control and how it relates to
Independent behaviour.
Characteristics of Locus of control e.g. why are high internals more
likely to be independent
AO2 – Evidence in research – Anderson and Schneier, Linz and
Semykina, e.t.c.
Implications – more external teenagers - Twenge et al,