1
 Chemistry
is the study of the substances,
specially their structure, properties,
transformations and the energy changes
accompanying these transformation.
2
 The
study of Carbon Compounds or better
to say the chemistry of hydrocarbons and
their derivatives.
3


Atom: Smallest indivisible particle of an
element
Molecule: Smallest particle of matter
4
Types of Bonding

Ionic bonding
– electron is fully transferred from metal to non-
metal
– binding is by electrostatic attraction.
5
Ionic Bonding
Na
Sodium Atom
F
Fluorine Atom
6
Ionic Bonding (2)
Na
Sodium ion
F
Fluoride ion
Attraction between the two ions is electrostatic -Ionic Bond
7
A SIMPLE COVALENT BOND
A pair of electrons is shared between the two bonded atoms.
H.
.H
8
A SIMPLE COVALENT BOND
Bonded pair
H H
9
A LEWIS DIAGRAM
H
..
O
..
CONSTRUCTED
FROM LEWIS
DOT SYMBOLS
H.
(note use of lines for bonds)
H
COVALENT
BONDS
..
.O .
..
.H
10
DRAWING CONVENTIONS
1. A shared pair (bond) is drawn as a line.
C
O
2. An unshared pair is shown as a pair of dots.
N:
3. The diagram includes formal charges (later).
H
.. +
O
H
H
11
Bonding patterns
 Carbon
 Nitrogen
(phosphorus)
 Oxygen (sulfur)
 Halogen (F, Cl, Br, I)
 Hydrogen
4 bonds
3 bonds
2 bonds
1 bond
1 bond
12
Normal bonding patterns
Carbon (4 bonds)
Nitrogen (3 bonds)
C
N
C
C
C
N
N
(Phosphorus)
Oxygen (2 bonds)
O
O
(Sulfur)
Halogen (1 bond)
X
(F, Cl, Br, I)
Hydrogen (1 bond)
H
13
Common Bonding Patterns -- Cations
+
C
+
.. +
O
N +
+
O
..
N
+
N
+
O:
+
N
14
Common Bonding Patterns -- Anions
_
B
..
C
_
.. _
N..
..
N
..
.. _
O:
..
_
15
Primary (1°) – attached to only one other carbon
Secondary (2°) – attached to two other carbons
Tertiary (3°) – attached to three other carbons
Quaternary (4°) – attached to four other carbons
16
Aliphatic
alkanes – contain only single bonds
(saturated)
alkenes – contain at least one double bond
(unsaturated)
alkynes – contain at least one triple bond
Aromatic
contain a benzene ring
17

Alkanes contain only single ( ) bonds and have the
generic molecular formula: [CnH2n+2]

Alkenes also contain double ( + ) bonds and have the
generic molecular formula: [CnH2n]

Alkynes contain triple ( + 2) bonds and have the generic
molecular formula: [CnH2n-2]

Aromatics are planar, ring structures with alternating single
and double bonds: eg. C6H6
18
Each C atom is tetrahedral with sp3 hybridized orbital. They only have single bonds.
Each C atom is trigonal planar with sp2 hybridized orbitals.
There is no rotation about the C=C bond in alkenes.
19
Each C atom is linear with sp hybridized orbitals.
Each C--C bond is the same length; shorter than a C-C bond: longer than a C=C bond.
The concept of resonance is used to explain this phenomena.
20
1 meth
2 eth
3 prop
4 but
5 pent
6 hex
7 hept
8 oct
9 non
10 dec
methane
ethane
propane
butane
pentane
hexane
heptane
octane
nonane
decane
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22
21
Naming Alkanes
C1 - C10 : the number of C atoms present in the chain.
Each member C3 - C10 differs by one CH2 unit.
This is called a homologous series.
Methane to butane are gases at normal pressures.
Pentane to decane are liquids at normal pressures.
22
23
Nomenclature of Alkyl Substituents
24
25
Constitutional Isomers

Substances which have the same molecular
formula but a different structural formula.

Isomers differ in connectivity.
27
Molecules which have the same
molecular formula, but differ in the
arrangement of their atoms, are called
isomers.
 Constitutional (or structural) isomers differ
in their bonding sequence.
 Stereoisomers differ only in the
arrangement of the atoms in space. =>

OH
H
H
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
OH
OH
H
O H
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
O
H
H
H
H
O OH
H
H H
O
HO
H
HO
OH
H
H
H
OH
H
OH
OH
H
HO
OH
H
H
O OH
H
H H
OH
H
O
HO
HO
OH
H
OH
OH
H
H
HO
OH
H
OH
Isomers
Constitutional
Stereoisomers
structural
connectivity =
connectivity ≠
orientation≠
Enantiomers
Diastereomers
Non-superimposable mirror image
not mirror images
CH3
O CH3
and
CH3
CH2
OH
CH3
and
CH3
=>
33
• A compound can have more than one name, but a
name must unambiguously specify only one compound
A C7H16 compound can be any one of the following:
navedmalek@yahoo.co.in
34
Diastereomers
Cis-trans isomers are also called geometric isomers.
There must be two different groups on the sp2 carbon.




An atom or group of atoms which makes an organic
compound reactive and decides its functions (properties) is
called a Functional group.
In an organic compound, the alkyl group determines the
physical properties whereas the functional group determines
the chemical properties of the compound.
A Functional group can be introduced by displacing
hydrogen of the hydrocarbon.
The functional groups are directly attached to the carbon of
the organic compound.
38
The basic structure of testosterone (male hormone) and estradiol
(female hormone) is identical.


Both are steroids with four fused carbon rings, but they differ in the
functional groups attached to the rings.
These then interact with different targets in the body.
39


6 functional groups, all hydrophilic
hydroxyl group (-OH), a hydrogen atom forms a polar covalent bond with
an oxygen which forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton.
 Because of these polar covalent bonds hydroxyl groups improve the
water solubility of organic molecules.
 Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are alcohols and their names
typically end in -ol.
40
A carbonyl group (-CO) consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon
skeleton by a double bond.



If the carbonyl group is on the end of the skeleton, the compound is an
aldelhyde.
If not, then the compound is a ketone.
Isomers with aldehydes versus ketones have different properties.
41
A carboxyl group (-COOH) consists of a carbon atom with a double
bond with an oxygen atom and a single bond to a hydroxyl group.
 Compounds with carboxyl groups are carboxylic acids.
 A carboxyl group acts as an acid because the combined
electro-negativities of the two adjacent oxygen atoms increase
the dissociation of hydrogen as an ion (H+).
42
An amino group (-NH2) consists of a nitrogen atom attached to two
hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton.
 Organic compounds with amino groups are amines.
 The amino group acts as a base because amino groups can pick up
a hydrogen ion (H+) from the solution.
 Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, have amino and
carboxyl groups.
43
A sulfhydryl group (-SH) consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a
hydrogen atom and to the backbone.
 This group resembles a hydroxyl group in shape.
 Organic molecules with sulfhydryl groups are thiols.
 Sulfhydryl groups help stabilize the structure of proteins.
44
A phosphate group (-OPO32-) consists of phosphorus bound to four
oxygen atoms (three with single bonds and one with a double
bond).
 A phosphate group connects to the carbon backbone via one
of its oxygen atoms.
 Phosphate groups are anions with two negative charges as two
hydrogens have dissociated from the oxygen atoms.
 One function of phosphate groups is to transfer energy
between organic molecules.
45
navedmalek@yahoo.co.in
46
navedmalek@yahoo.co.in
47
Classes of Organic Compounds
R
H
R
Alkane
R
O
R
R'
Ether
R
R
C
R
H
Aldehyde
C
R'
C
R
OH
Carboxylic Acid
C
Ketone
O
O
O
R
O
R
Alkene
R
OH
Alcohol
NH2
O
C
R
R
Amine
R
C
X
Alkyl Halide
C
Alkyne
R'
C
O
R
R'
Ester
C
NH2
Amide
R
C
N
Nitrile
48
49
Monohydric Alcohols
 Polyhydric Alcohols
- Dihydric Alcohols (Ethylene Glycol)
- Trihydric Alcohols (Glycerol)

50







Devided in Primary, Secondary and tertiary
alcohols.
CH3OH, CH3CH2OH
Methanol
Ethanol
CH3CH(OH)CH3
Isopropyl Alcohol
CH3C(OH)(CH3)
t-Butyl Alcohol
51



Lower are colorless, neutral substances with characteristic
sweet alcoholic smell and burning taste. Higher are waxy
solids.
Lower are readily soluble in water & organic solvents but it
decreases as M.W. increases.
B.P. are higher than corresponding alkanes. e.g. Methanol338 K and Methane-112K
52





By Hydrolysis
R-X + NaOH→ R-OH + NaX
By Hydration
CH2=CH2 → CH3CH2OH
Hydrolysis of Esters
CH3COOC2H5 → CH3COOH + C2H5OH
Reduction of Aldehyde/Ketone
CHO/C=O → 1-Alcohol/2-alcohol
Grignard Reagent
R-Mg-X →R-O-MgX →R-OH
53





Displacement of –OH gr. By Halogen(X)
R-OH + HX → RX + H2O
Action of Alkali Metals
2ROH + 2Na → 2RONa + H2
Dehydration
C2H5OH → CH2=CH2 + H2O
Oxidation of Alcohol(K2Cr2O7/H2SO4)
1-alcohol → Aldehyde → Acid
Reduction of Alcohols(Red P )
C2H5OH + 2HI → CH3CH3+H2O + I2
54
H
H
H
C
OH
Methanol (methyl alcohol) or wood alcohol
a. Made by the destructive distillation of wood
b. Or by… CO + 2H2 
CH3OH
c. Used as a solvent
d. Possible replacement for gasoline
e. Forms formaldehyde in body causing blindness
55
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) or grain alcohol
a. Made from the fermentation of grain, fruit, or sugar
b. C6H12O6 + yeast  2C2H5OH + CO2
c. The alcohol that is in beverages
d. Added to automotive fuels – 10% as gasohal
e. 1 pint of pure alcohol will kill most people
f. caused deterioration of the liver, memory loss
and is harmful to unborn babies
H
H
C
H
H
C
OH
H
56
OH
H
H
C C
H
H C H
H
H
Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol)
a. Alcohol used for cuts and cleaning
b. Will not be absorbed by the skin
c. Toxic if taken internally
d. Sold as a 70% solution – 140 proof
57
Ethylene glycol
H
Ethylene glycol
a. Used for antifreeze in cars
b. Very sweet tasting
c. Toxic – caused kidney failure and death
H
H C C H
HO
OH
H
H
H C C H
HO
OH
O O
Liver
C C
HO
Kidney
CaC2O4
OH
Oxalic acid
Calcium Oxalate
58
H
H H
H C C C H
HO
OH OH
Glycerol
a. Used in lotion to keep skin soft
b. Food additive that keeps cookies soft
c. Can add to nitric acid to form nitroglycerin
Nitroglycerin (nitro) taken to relieve angina
heart pain
59
If an oxygen atom is attached to carbon by a double bond
the functional group –C=O is called carbonyl group.
60
O
R C H
61






Formaldehyde is a gas at room temp. All other members are
colorless liquids at ordinary temp. The higher members are
solids.
Lower aldehydes have unpleasant smell but as one goes up
in the series the smell becomes more fruity. Ketones are
generally pleasant smelling liquids.
Solubilities
Lower members are highly soluble in water. Solubilities
decreases with increasing molecular mass.
B.P. are higher than those of non polar alkanes.
B.P. of aldehydes/Ketones are lower than the B.P. of alcohols.
62

Addition Across C=O bond
CH3CHO + HCN
Acetaldehyde

HCH(OMgBr)CH3
CH3CH=NNH2 + H2O
Oxidation
CH3CHO

CH3CH=N-OH + H2O
With Hydrazine (Phenyl Hydrazine)
CH3CHO + H2NNH2

CH3CH2OH + Mg(OH)Br
With Hydroxyl Amine
CH3CHO + H2NOH

CH3CH(OH)COOH
2-hydroxy propanoicAcid -
Addition of Grignard Reagent
HCHO + CH3MgBr

CH3CH(CN)OH
Cyanohydrins
CH3COOH
Reduction (Pt / Ni)
CH3CHO + H2
CH3CH2OH
63
O
R
C
R
64
O
Acetone
a. Made from Isopropyl alcohol
CH3
O
OH
H3 C CH
H3C
C
CH3
-H
H3 C
C
CH3
b. Used as a solvent for fats, rubber, plastics, and varnishes
c. Used as fingernail polish remover
d. Will not mix with water
Washes water off of glassware after cleaning
65
O
R
C
OH
R COOH
66
The first nine mono carboxylic acids are colorless liquids, while the
higher ones are colorless wax like solids.
 Solubility: The first four (formic, acetic, propeonic, butiric) are soluble
while fifth (valeric) is slightly soluble and acids above six carbon are
insoluble in water.
 B.P. & M.P.: They have abnormally high b.p., even higher than those
of alcohols of similar molecular weights.

67
Reaction with alkalies
R-COOH + NaOH
R-COONa + H2O
Decarboxylation
CH3COOH + NaOH
soda lime
CH3COONa + H2O
CH3COONa + NaOH sodalime CH4 + Na2CO3
Reduction
R-COOH
LiAlH4/ 2H2
R-CH2OH
Reaction with Carbonates
R-COOH + Na2CO3
R-COONa + H2O + CO2
Dehydration
2R-COOH
R-COOCOCH3 + H2O
Acid Anhydride
68
O
H
C
OH
Formic Acid
a. Irritant to skin
b. Part of the venom in ants, bee’s, or wasps
69
The acid in vinegar
O
CH3 C
OH
70
O
C
OH
Benzoic acid
Used to make benzene type compounds in organic synthesis
71
O
R C O
R
72
O
O
Apricot (pentyl buterate)
73
O
O
Orange (Octyl acetate)
74
O
CH3 C O
Jasmine (benzyl acetate)
75
O
C O CH3
Wintergreen (methyl salicylate)
OH
76
R O R
77
O
Diethyl ether
a. Used as a solvent
b. Used for thinning paints
c. Boils at 36 C (dries quickly)
d. Used as anesthetic or as a drug
e. Dissolves organic compounds readily
f. Reacts with oxygen to form unstable peroxides
78
CH3
CH3 O C CH3
CH3
Tert-butyl ether (MTBE)
a. Gasoline additive
b. Reduces CO emissions
c. Replaced lead as the antiknock compound
79
H
H
Ethylene Oxide
a. Very toxic gas
b. Used in the formation of ethylene glycol
c. Ethylene glycol is used in antifreeze and in polyester fibers.
C C H
H
O
80
R
primary
H N
H
H
R
H N
R N
H
H
amonia
secondary
R
R N
tertiary
R
81
H
CH2 CH2 N
Amphetamine (stimulant drug)
H
82
H
N
Analine (used in dyes)
H
83
CH3
CH3 N
H
Dimethyl amine
used in volcanizing rubber, tanning hydes
and making of soaps
84
CH2CH3
CH3CH2
N
CH2CH3
Triethyl amine
attracts insects
warning agent in natural gas
85
Made of C,H,O, N
SPONCH
 Monomers = amino acids
- 20 different types of amino acids used
to make proteins
 Proteins are the polymer also called a
polypeptide


3 main parts
- Amino group NH2
- Carboxyl group COOH
- R group (side chain)
each of the 20 types
of amino acids have
a unique R group
Proteins vary in length – can be 1,000s of amino acids long
Protein
A protein’s shape is determined by the
order that amino acids are joined in
 The shape of a protein determines its
function

Hemoglobin
antibody
enzymes
Protein Structure
Four Levels of Structure allow for any shape
2-28

Primary structure is the order of the
amino acids that make up a protein.
- the interactions of the R groups on
each amino acid
cause the molecule to bend and fold –
different arrangements create different
shapes
- as a result- the order of
amino acids determines
the shape of the protein
The folding proteins often assume one of
two general shapes
– pleated sheets or an alpha helix these
are the protein’s secondary structure.
- hydrogen bonds between amino acids
Alpha Helix
stabilize the secondary structure


The coiled or pleated structures continue
to fold until
they form a complex three dimensional
structure.
- most proteins are completed at this
stage and are fully functioning proteins.

Some more complex proteins are
assembled from two
or more protein molecules.
- Insulin – 2 forms – 2 proteins or 6 proteins
- Hemoglobin – 4 proteins






Enzymes - proteins that allow chemical reactions to
occur in living things
Antibodies – proteins that protect the body from
infection
Structure – cytoskeleton, hair, nails, muscles, spider
web, silk, feathers ,horns, hooves etc….
Hormones – chemical messengers
Cell membrane – proteins can act as channels through
the cell membrane
- receptor proteins found on membrane
transmit signals to the inside of cells
Hemoglobin – protein found in blood that carries oxygen

Denatured proteins are proteins that lose
their shape
- if they lose their shape, they also lose their
- What can cause a protein to become
denatured?
Exposure to: A Strong Acid
A Strong Base
Heat
An organic solvent: Alcohol or
Acetone
- Denatured proteins can lose quaternary,
tertiary and
secondary structure
- Primary Structure is left untouched









Polypeptide
R – Group
Peptide Bond
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
Enzymes
Antibodies




Cell Membrane
Proteins
Hormones
Denatured Protein
4 things that
denature proteins