CHAPTER 13 (GOODWIN) –
PSYCHOLOGY’S
PRACTITIONERS
Dr. Nancy Alvarado
Research vs Practice
Psychology
Experimental
Psychology
Psychonomic Society
APS (Association for
Psychological Science)
Ph.D.
Clinical
Psychology
APA (American
Psychological Association)
Ph.D. or Psy.D
Ph.D vs Psy.D vs MD
Mental Health Care
Clinical Psychology
Clinical Research
Ph.D. with research
dissertation + clinical
internship & licensure
Work in university
Psychiatry
Clinical Practice
Psy.D with supervised
practice instead of
dissertation + clinical
internship & licensure
Work in clinic
M.D. with
Internship in
Psychiatry & board
certification +
Psychoanalytic
Training (optional)
Work in hospital or
clinic
What About Counseling?
Mental Health Care
Major Axis disorders
(mental illness)
Clinical Psychology
Therapy, diagnosis
and testing,
coordination of care in
agencies/institutions
Problems with Living and
Personality Disorders
Psychiatry
Management of drug and
other medical treatment,
evaluation of organic
factors, institutional care
•Counseling (MFT &
school)
•Social work and
social service
agencies
•Pastoral counseling
•Therapy for adjustment problems
Researchers vs Practitioners

Prior to WWII, academic psychology dominated the
APA but that gradually changed.
 First,
clinical psychologists formed other organizations.
 The balance shifted in 1962 when those in
nonacademic (clinical) jobs outnumbered academics.
 The APA was restructured in 1982 to include divisions to
restore the status of experimental psychology.
 Experimental psychologists formed the Psychonomic
Society (1960) and later, the APS (1988).

The split represents different values & interests.
The Limited Role of Psychologists

Before the war, psychologists worked under
psychiatrists (who had medical training) and
psychologists were limited to administering tests.
 There

was little formal training except on-the-job.
During the war psychologists began providing
therapeutic services because the need was so great.
 The
govt NIMH funded training of clinical psychologists.
 Psychologists were recognized as expert diagnosticians
and therapists, no longer restricted to a clinic setting or
supervised by a psychiatrist.
Deaths in WWI
Deaths in WWII
Psychological Effects of WWII




40% of casualties of the Battle of Guadalcanal
(1942) requiring evacuation were psychological
‘breakdowns.’
Of the first 1.5 million medical discharges, 45%
were for psychiatric reasons.
At the end of the war, 44,000 people were
hospitalized at the VA for mental disorders,
compared to 30,000 for physical wounds.
Psychiatry could not meet the need for treatment.
Battle Stresses

Trying to understand what had contributed to the tremendous
psychiatric casualty levels of this prolonged battle, Lidz (1946,
p. 194) concluded that:
“…there were many factors preying on the emotional stability of the men. The tension of
suspense in one form or another was among the most serious; waiting to be killed, for death had
begun to seem inevitable to many, and some walked out to meet it rather than continue to
endure the unbearable waiting; waiting for the next air raid and the minutes of trembling after
the final warning; waiting for the relief ships; waiting without acting through the jungle nights,
listening for the sounds of Japs crawling, or for the sudden noise that might herald an attack;
waiting even in sleep for the many warning sounds. The fears were numerous: of death, of
permanent crippling, of capture and torture, of ultimate defeat in a war that was starting so
badly . . . [as well as] fear of cowardice . . . and of madness.”

“In this first offensive battle of the war it became clear that the
incapacitating wound could arrive with the mail from home . . .
the loss of a girlfriend, the fight with parents” (Lidz, 1946, p. 195).
Examples of Shell Shock

Films of Shell Shock in WWI:
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsSkL3Yl0rA&featur
e=related

US Army documentary on battle stress (1947):
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eE6kw1qp3n8

General Patton slapping incident (from the movie
Patton (1970):
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Huxzr_keJT0
The Boulder Model

David Shakow headed the APA’s Committee on
Training in Clinical Psychology (CTCP) in 1947.
 71
professionals met at the Univ. of Colorado in
Boulder to create a blueprint for training.

3 forms of expertise were needed:
 Diagnosis
– training in assessment was provided.
 Therapy – a year-long internship was required.
 Empirical research – a dissertation was required.

This “scientist-practitioner” approach was known as
the Boulder Model
The Eysenck Study

In 1952, Hans Eysenck published “The Effects of
Psychotherapy: An Evaluation” suggesting that
traditional psychotherapy was ineffective.
 He
compared 5 psychoanalytic studies and 14 eclectic
therapies with a control group of 2 studies of
“neurotics” without treatment (from insurance records).
 Improvement was 72% for controls compared to 44%
for psychoanalysis and 64% for the eclectic therapies.

The methods were flawed but the study damaged
the reputation of psychotherapy in the 50’s & 60’s.
Behavior Therapy

Behaviorists challenged psychoanalytic approaches
by developing alternative therapies applying the
results of their studies.
 Hobart
& Mowrer developed a treatment for bedwetting involving a bell ringing when a sheet was wet,
attacking deep-seated psychoanalytic explanations.
 Eysenck developed “behavior therapy” & a journal.
 Wolpe developed systematic desensitization, a
behavior modification technique to treat phobias
(irrational fears) based on learning theory.
Systematic Desensitization

He applied Mary Cover Jones’s approach of
pairing a fear response with a pleasure response
(counter-conditioning).
 Cats
were shocked when they approached food, then
the fear response was replaced with food in rooms
gradually changed to resemble the original room.
 He used progressive relaxation to replace food when
working with humans.
 People develop an anxiety hierarchy then pair an
imagined scene with relaxation until anxiety fades.
Other Behavioral Approaches


Token economies -- Skinner
Cognitive-behavior therapy
 Ellis
– rational emotive therapy
 Beck – treatment for depression based on Seligman’s
Learned Helplessness
 Behavior modification – based on analysis of behavior
and changing rewards.
Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology rejected psychoanalysis and
behaviorism.
 Human
behavior cannot be reduced to repressed
biological instincts (Freud) or simple conditioning.
 The past does not inevitably limit the future.

People are characterized by free will, a sense of
responsibility and purpose, and a search for
meaning in one’s life.
 There
is an innate tendency toward growth called selfactualization
Two Important Humanists
Abraham
Maslow
Carl
Rogers
Abraham Maslow

Maslow trained as an experimental psychologist
studying dominance behavior in primates.
 He
was hired as faculty at Brooklyn College then
moved to Brandeis University in 1951.


He focused on the nature of psychological health
not disorders, examining the lives of self-actualized
people (e.g., Ruth Benedict, Max Wertheimer).
He said self-actualizers see reality accurately, are
independent and creative, have a strong moral
code and see their work as more than a job.
Carl Rogers

After a very strict Protestant upbringing, Rogers
studied theology at Union Seminary but switched to
Columbia Teacher’s College and psychology.
 Leta
Hollingsworth encouraged his interest in child
guidance.
 He disliked psychoanalysis during his training.

He spent 12 years as staff psychologist at a child
guidance clinic in Rochester NY, developing his own
therapeutic approach.
Rogers in Academia

In 1940 Rogers was hired at Ohio State University
where he wrote “Counseling & Psychotherapy” in
1942. Then he moved to the Univ. of Chicago.
 He
was elected president of the APA in 1946 signaling
the shift from research to clinical psychology.
 After 12 years in Chicago, he moved to the Univ. of
Wisconsin, where his work was attacked.

In 1961 he moved to California, originally at the
Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, then he
founded the Center for the Study of the Person.
Client-Centered Therapy

Rogers rejected the need to delve into the client’s
past but instead focused on creating a therapeutic
relationship supporting growth.
 The
therapist must be honest with the client.
 The therapist must be unconditionally accepting of the
client’s worth (by virtue of being a human being).
 The therapist must have empathy (understanding of the
client’s viewpoint) modeled using reflective listening.

Rogers conducted research to test the effectiveness
of his approach. The approach was popular.
The Vail Conference

The Boulder Model had difficulties:
 Practitioners
outside academia found little use for their
research skills and felt they had insufficient clinical
training.
 Grad students weren’t getting good clinical training
because academics had no time for practice.


Crane proposed a new degree – Doctor of
Psychology (Psy.D.), emphasizing clinical training.
The Vail Conference (1973) set standards for new
programs, legitimizing the degree.
Recent Changes in the Field


Clinical psychology has gained respect and
distinguished itself from psychiatry.
After legal battles, clinical psychologist now have
the right to:
 Admit
& release patients from mental hospitals.
 Serve as expert witnesses in court.
 Receive payments from insurance companies.

Disputes over prescription privileges continue – a
few states allow it.
Remainder of Chapter


The remainder of this chapter will be discussed
during lectures later in the quarter when the
Hothersall chapters focus on testing and people
such as Cattell.
The remainder of this Goodwin chapter will not be
on Midterm 2, but may be on the Final exam.