Social Work
Theoretical Frameworks
“Hei hoa haere kia marama ai te kaupapa o te whakawhitiwhiti whakaaro”
As companions you clearly acknowledge and exchange perspectives with
integrity (Hariata Pohatu)
Presented by Huhana Reihana
Te Arotakenga: Te Wawaotanga, 2012
SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud
(German pronunciation born)
Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was a
Jewish Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis.
Freud's parents were poor, but ensured his education. Freud was an
outstanding pupil in high school, and graduated the Matura with honors in
1873. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it
and became a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and
microscopic neuroanatomy.
SIGMUND FREUD 1856 – 1939
 Sigmund Freud (1856—1939)
 Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, was a physiologist, medical doctor,
psychologist and influential thinker of the early twentieth century. Working initially in
close collaboration with Joseph Breuer, Freud elaborated the theory that the mind is a
complex energy-system, the structural investigation of which is the proper province of
psychology. He articulated and refined the concepts of the unconscious, infantile
sexuality and repression, and he proposed a tripartite account of the mind’s structure—
all as part of a radically new conceptual and therapeutic frame of reference for the
understanding of human psychological development and the treatment of abnormal
mental conditions. Notwithstanding the multiple manifestations of psychoanalysis as it
exists today, it can in almost all fundamental respects be traced directly back to Freud’s
original work.
 Freud’s innovative treatment of human actions, dreams, and indeed of cultural artifacts
as invariably possessing implicit symbolic significance has proven to be extraordinarily
fruitful, and has had massive implications for a wide variety of fields including
psychology, anthropology, semiotics, and artistic creativity and appreciation. However,
Freud’s most important and frequently re-iterated claim, that with psychoanalysis he had
invented a successful science of the mind, remains the subject of much critical debate and
controversy.
Psychoanalysis
 Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian
Physician Sigmund Freud and continued by others.
 It is primarily devoted to the study of human psychological
functioning and behavior,
 although it also can be applied to societies.
Human behaviour
 Psychoanalysis has three applications:
 a method of investigation of the mind;
 a systematized set of theories about human behaviour;
 a method of treatment of psychological or emotional
illness.[1]
Theoretical orientations
 Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis there are at least
twenty-two different theoretical orientations regarding the
underlying theory of understanding of human mentation
 and human development.
 The various approaches in treatment called "psychoanalytic"
vary as much as the different theories do.
 In addition, the term refers to a method of studying child
development.
Specific type of treatment
 Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a specific type of treatment
in which the (analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts,
 including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which
the analyst formulates the unconscious conflicts causing the
patient's symptoms
 and character problems, and interprets them for the patient
to create insight for resolution of the problems.
Verbal
psychotherapy
 Freud went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind
 and the mechanism of repression,
 and established the field of verbal psychotherapy
 by creating psychoanalysis,[a clinical method for
 treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient
 and a psychoanalyst.
 Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic practice,
Personality Development
 According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly
established by the age of five.
 Early experiences play a large role in personality
development
 and continue to influence behavior later in life.
Pyschosexual development
 Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one
of the best known, but also one of the most
controversial.
 Freud believed that personality develops through a
series of childhood stages during which the
pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused
on certain erogenous areas.
 This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described
as the driving force behind behavior.
Fixation
 If these psychosexual stages are completed
successfully, the result is a healthy personality.
 If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate
stage, fixation can occur.
 A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier
psychosexual stage.
 Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person
who is fixated at the oral stage may be overdependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
through smoking, drinking, or eating
Psychoanalysis
 Psychoanalysis assumes that people are often conflicted
between their need to learn about themselves,
 and their (conscious or unconscious) fears of and defenses
against
 change and self-exposure
Psychoanalysis
 Freud's eventual practice of psychoanalysis focused not so much
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on the recall of these memories as on the internal mental conflicts
which kept them buried deep within the mind, though the
technique of free association still plays a role today in therapeutic
practice and in the study of the mind.
The use of free association was intended to help discover notions
that a patient had developed, initially, at an unconscious level,
including:
Transference - unwittingly transferring feelings about one person
to become applied to another person;
Projection - projecting internal feelings or motives, instead
ascribing them to other things or people;
Resistance - holding a mental block against remembering or
accepting some events or ideas.
Analyst’s interventions
 The specifics of the analyst's interventions typically
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include confronting and clarifying the patient's
pathological defenses, wishes and guilt.
Through the analysis of conflicts, including those
contributing to resistance
and those involving transference onto the analyst of
distorted reactions,
psychoanalytic treatment can clarify how patients
unconsciously are their own worst enemies:
how unconscious, symbolic reactions that have been
stimulated by experience are causing symptoms.
•Freud's theories were enormously influential
• but subject to considerable criticism both now and during
his own life.
• However, his ideas have become interwoven into the fabric
of our culture,
•with terms such as "Freudian slip,
•"repression" and
• "denial" appearing regularly in everyday language.
VYGOTSKY
Vygotsky’s Theories
•Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes
development;
• Consciousness and cognition are the end product of
•Socialization and
• Social behaviour.
Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Cultural historical psychology
 November 5] 1896 – June 11, 1934)
 Soviet psychologist,
 Founder of an original holistic theory
 Human cultural and biosocial development commonly
referred to as
 cultural-historical psychology,
 and leader of the Vygotsky Circle.
Developmental psychology, child
development and education
 written over roughly 10 years, from Psychology of Art (1925) to Thought and
Language [or Thinking and Speech] (1934). Vygotsky's interests in the fields of
developmental psychology, child development, and education were extremely
diverse.
 His philosophical framework includes insightful interpretations of the cognitive
role of mediation tools, as well as the re-interpretation of well-known concepts
in psychology such as internalization of knowledge. Vygotsky introduced the
notion of zone of proximal development, an innovative metaphor capable of
describing the potential of human cognitive development.
 His work covered such diverse topics as the origin and the psychology of art,
development of higher mental functions, philosophy of science and
methodology of psychological research, the relation between learning and
human development, concept formation, interrelation between language and
thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, learning disabilities,
and abnormal human development (aka defectology)
Child Development and Education
Learning and Human Development
Child development and Education
Child development
 Vygotsky investigated child development and the important roles
of cultural mediation and interpersonal communication. He
observed how higher mental functions developed through these
interactions also represented the shared knowledge of a culture.
This process is known as internalization
Knowledge of a culture –
internalisation
Emphasis on Social – Cultural Context
 Strengths
 Emphasis on Social-Cultural Context
 Vygotsky is the primary developmental theorist to emphasize the broader socio-
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historical context of development. In many ways, sociocultural theory thus
"corrects" theories focused on individuals and gives a different perspective on major
topics of development.
Vygotsky's focus on the fluid boundary between self and others is particularly useful
in contemporary developmental psychology.
According to Vygotsky, society shares its cognitive goals with the child, and the child
shapes the environment.
Concepts such as the zone of proximal development and internalization refer to the
cognitive exchanges that occur at this border.
The task for developmental psychologists is to focus on the specific processes that
occur in the interface between the child and the environment. In other words,
"What do a child and other people actually do together moment-to-moment in a
particular setting, and how does this interaction affect the child's environment?"
Social Cultural Theory
Internalization
 Internalization can be understood
in one respect as “knowing how”.
 For example, riding a bicycle or
pouring a cup of milk are tools of
the society and initially outside
and beyond the child.
 The mastery of these skills occurs
through the activity of the child
within society.
 A further aspect of internalization
is appropriation, in which the child
takes a tool and makes it his own,
perhaps using it in a way unique to
himself. Internalizing the use of a
pencil allows the child to use it
very much for his own ends rather
than drawing exactly what others
in society have drawn previously
Activities of a Child
Social rules
 Vygotsky also referred to the development of
social rules that form, for example, when
children play house and adopt the roles of
different family members.
 As well as social rules, the child acquires what
we now refer to as self-regulation.
 For example, when a child stands at the
starting line of a running race, she may well
desire to run immediately so as to reach the
finish line first, but her knowledge of the
social rules surrounding the game and her
desire to enjoy the game enable her to
regulate her initial impulse and wait for the
start signal.
Self Regulation
Family Members
Inter-relationship of language
development and thought
 Perhaps Vygotsky's most
important
contribution
concerns
the
interrelationship of language
development and thought.
 This concept, explored in
Vygotsky's book Thought
and Language, (alternative
translation:
 Thinking and Speaking)
establishes the explicit and
profound
connection
between speech (both
silent inner speech and
oral language),
Mental concepts and cognitive
awareness
 The development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness.
Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different
from normal (external) speech.
 Although Vygotsky believed inner speech developed from
external speech via a gradual process of internalization, with
younger children only really able to "think out loud," he
claimed that in its mature form inner speech would be
unintelligible to anyone except the thinker, and would not
resemble spoken language as we know it (in particular, being
greatly compressed). Hence, thought itself develops socially
Conscious and unconscious Mind
Language Development
Language
 Language starts as a tool external to the child used for social
interaction. The child guides personal behavior by using this tool
in a kind of self-talk or "thinking out loud." Initially, self-talk is
very much a tool of social interaction and this tapers to negligible
levels when the child is alone or with deaf children. Gradually,
self-talk is used more as a tool for self-directed and self-regulating
behavior. Because speaking has been appropriated and
internalized, self-talk is no longer present around the time the
child starts school. Self-talk "develops along a rising not a
declining, curve; it goes through an evolution, not an involution.
In the end, it becomes inner speech" (Vygotsky, 1987, pg 57).
Inner speech develops through its differentiation from social
speech
Inner and external speech
 Inner speech is not comparable
in form to external speech.
External speech is the process
of turning thought into words.
Inner speech is the opposite; it
is the conversion of speech
into inward thought. Inner
speech, for example, contains
predicates only. Subjects are
superfluous. Words are also
used much more economically.
One word in inner speech may
be so replete with sense to the
individual that it would take
many words to express it in
external speech.
Processes of turning thoughts
into words
Conversion of Speech
Zone of proximal development
 "Zone of proximal development" (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term
for the range of tasks that a child can complete. The lower
limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working
independently (also referred to as the child’s actual
developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential
skill that the child is able to reach with the assistance of a
more capable instructor.
Zone of proximal development
Cognitive
development
 Therefore, development always follows the child’s potential to
learn. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of
cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that
characterizes development in terms of a child’s independent
capabilities.
Your Child’s Brain
Child’s potential to learn
Aquisition of language
 Scaffolding is changing the level of support to suit the cognitive
potential of the child.
 According to Vygotsky, language (and in particular, speech) is
fundamental to children’s cognitive growth because language
provides purpose and intention so that behaviors can be better
understood.
 Through the use of speech, children are able to communicate to
and learn from others through dialogue, which is an important
tool in the ZPD
Speech is fundamental to children’s
cognitive growth
Cultural context
 Vygotsky focused on the child-in-context acting in a
situation or event as the smallest unit of study. Vygotsky
defined “context” as a child’s culture and how it is expressed.
Further, the child is continually acting in social interactions
with other people. Vygotsky argued that a lack of cultural
context distorts our view of development and that it can
lead us to look at causes of behavior as residing within the
child rather than within their culture.
Child in Context
Social Interactions
Concept of culture
 Culture
is communicated
through home and societal
routines. Vygotsky also
included
physical
and
historical influences in the
concept of culture. For
example, culture can be
influenced by a people’s
response to a physical terrain,
natural disasters, or war.
Physical and Historical influences
Language as a psychological tool
 Vygotsky viewed language as the most critical psychological tool.
Thinking, comprehending, and producing language are all
processes that affect individual perceptions of their social worlds.
Language also has an influence on how children use physical tools.
As language develops and becomes reorganized, it influences new
modes of problem solving.
 The transmission of cultural tools most often happens in the home
and through schooling. However, one should not assume that all
schooling systems are addressing the needs of each child in a
culture (see comments in diversity section on diversity in
educational systems). The modes of teaching or schooling are
intricately tied to what a culture values as ‘knowledge’
New modes of problem solving
Constructvism
 Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a way to better explain the relation
between children’s learning and cognitive development. Prior to the
ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled
down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always
precedes learning (e.g., constructivism): children first need to meet a
particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and
development cannot be separated but instead occur simultaneously (e.g.,
behaviorism): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and
development are separate but interactive processes (e.g., gestaltism):
one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa. Vygotsky
rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning
always precedes development in the ZPD. In other words, through the
assistance of a more capable person, a child is able to learn skills or
aspects of a skill that go beyond the child’s actual developmental or
maturational level.
Learning and Development
Bibliography
Blanck, G. (1992). "Vygotsky: The man and his cause". In L. C.
Moll. Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and
applications of sociohistorical psychology.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind..
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1. (p.
5)
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind..
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94351-1. (p.
6)
PIAGET
Jean Piaget (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ pjaʒɛ]; 9 August 1896 –
16 September 1980) was a French-speaking Swissdevelopmental
psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies
with children. He was the eldest son of Arthur Piaget (Swiss) and
Rebecca Jackson (French). His theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
Education of Children
 Piaget placed great importance on the education of children.
As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he
declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our
societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or
gradual."[1]
Constructivist theory of knowing
 Piaget created the International Center for Genetic
Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it until 1980.
According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great
pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing."[2]
Cognitive studies and Curriculum
development
 In 1964, Piaget was invited to serve as chief consultant at two
conferences at Cornell University (March 11–13) and
University of California, Berkeley (March 16–18). The
conferences addressed the relationship of cognitive studies
and curriculum development and strived to conceive
implications of recent investigations of children's cognitive
development for curricula.[5]
Theoretical Models
 Harry Beilin described
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Jean Piaget's theoretical
research program[6] as
consisting of four phases:
the sociological model of
development,
the biological model of
intellectual development,
the elaboration of the
logical model of
intellectual development,
the study of figurative
thought.
Sociological model of development
 The sociological model of development
 Piaget first developed as a psychologist in the 1920s. He investigated the
hidden side of children’s minds. Piaget proposed that children moved
from a position of egocentrism to sociocentrism. For this explanation he
combined the use of psychological and clinical methods to create what
he called a semiclinical interview. He began the interview by asking
children standardized questions and depending on how they answered,
he would ask them a series of nonstandard questions. Piaget was looking
for what he called “spontaneous conviction” so he often asked questions
the children neither expected nor anticipated. In his studies, he noticed
there was a gradual progression from intuitive to scientific and socially
acceptable responses. Piaget theorized children did this because of the
social interaction and the challenge to younger children’s ideas by the
ideas of those children who were more advanced.
Sensorimotor/adaptive model of
intellectual development
 The sensorimotor/adaptive model of intellectual
development
 In this stage, Piaget described intelligence as having two
closely interrelated parts. The first part, which is from the
first stage, was the content of children's thinking. The second
part was the process of intellectual activity. He believed this
process of thinking could be regarded as an extension of the
biological process of adaptation
Intellectual development
 The elaboration of the logical model of intellectual
development
 In the model Piaget developed in stage three, he argued the idea
that intelligence develops in a series of stages that are related to
age and are progressive because one stage must be accomplished
before the next can occur. For each stage of development the child
forms a view of reality for that age period. At the next stage, the
child must keep up with earlier level of mental abilities to
reconstruct concepts. Piaget concluded intellectual development
as an upward expanding spiral in which children must constantly
reconstruct the ideas formed at earlier levels with new, higher
order concepts acquired at the next level.
Figurative thought
 The study of figurative thought
 Piaget studied areas of intelligence like perception and memory
that aren’t entirely logical. Logical concepts are described as being
completely reversible because they can always get back to the
starting point. The perceptual concepts Piaget studied could not
be manipulated. To describe the figurative process, Piaget uses
pictures as examples. Pictures can’t be separated because contours
cannot be separated from the forms they outline. Memory is the
same way. It is never completely reversible. During this last period
of work, Piaget and his colleague Inhelder also published books on
perception, memory, and other figurative processes such as
learning during this last period
Bibliography
 With Inhelder, B., The Child's Conception of Space (New York: W.W.

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Norton, 1967).
"Piaget's theory" in P. Mussen (ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology,
Vol. 1. (4th ed., New York: Wiley, 1983).
The Child's Conception of Number (London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1952) [La genese du nombre chez l'enfant (1941)].
Structuralism (New York: Harper & Row, 1970) [Le Structuralisme
(1968)].
Genetic epistemology (New York: W.W. Norton, 1971).
The early growth of logic in the child (London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1964) [La genese des structures logiqueselementaires (1959)].
ERIKSON
Erik Erikson
(15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994)
German-born American developmental psychologist
• Psychoanalyst known for his theory
• Psychosocial development of human beings.
• He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis.
• His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist.
Development of identity
 The development of identity seems to have been one of
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Erikson's greatest concerns in his own life
as well as in his theory.
During his childhood and early adulthood he was known
as Erik Homberger,
Parents kept the details of his birth a secret.
He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the
Jewish religion.
At temple school, the kids teased him for being a Nordic;
at grammar school,
they teased him for being Jewish
Psychoanalytic experience
 Psychoanalytic experience and training
 Erikson was a student and teacher of arts.
 While teaching at a private school in Vienna, he became
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acquainted with Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud.
Erikson underwent psychoanalysis, and the experience made him
decide to become an analyst himself.
He was trained in psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Institute
also studied the Montessori method of education
, which focused on child development
Pyschosocial development
 Erikson was a Neo-Freudian. He has been described as an "ego
psychologist" studying the stages of development, spanning the
entire lifespan.
 Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are marked
by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a
favourable outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an
important event that this conflict resolves itself around, for
example, the meaning of one's life.
Psychosocial development
 Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as "virtues", a
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term used, in the context of Eriksonian work, as it is applied to
medicines, meaning "potencies.“
Erikson's research suggests that each individual must learn how to
hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with
one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other.
Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and
accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that
stage surface.
Thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be understood and accepted, in
order for realistic 'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first
stage.
Similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair' must both be understood and
embraced, in order for actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a viable
solution at the last stage.
The Erikson life-stage virtues, in the order
of the stages in which they may be
acquired, are:
 Basic trust vs. basic mistrust - This stage covers the period of
infancy. 0-1 year of age. –
 Whether or not the baby develops basic trust or basic
mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture.
 .
Social Components
 It is multi-faceted and has strong social components. It
depends on the quality of the maternal relationship.
 The mother carries out and reflects their inner perceptions
of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the
child
 . If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust which
“forms the basis in the child for a sense of identity.
Early childhood 3 – 5 years
 Autonomy vs. Shame - Covers early childhood - Introduces the
concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. During this stage the
child is trying to master toilet training.
School age / 6-11 years
 Competence - Industry vs. Inferiority - School-age / 6-11. Child comparing
self worth to others (such as in a classroom environment).
 Child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other
children.
 Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that
children do not feel inferior.
Adolescent / 12 – 20 years
 Fidelity - Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescent / 12 years
till 20. Questioning of self.
 Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life?
 Erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore,
they will conclude their own identity.
 However, if the parents continually push him/her to
conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion.
Young adulthood 20/24 years
 Intimacy vs. isolation - This is the first stage of adult
development.
 This development usually happens during young adulthood,
which is between the ages of 20 to 24.
 .
Relationships 20/24 years
 Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during
the stage in their life
 . By successfully forming loving relationships with other people,
individuals are able to experience love and intimacy.
 Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and
alone
Sense of Purpose
 Also during this time, a person is
 enjoying raising their children
 participating in activities that gives
 them a sense of purpose.
If a person is not comfortable with
the way their life is progressing,
they're usually regretful about the
decisions
and feel a sense of uselessness
Second stage of adulthood 25-64
years
 Generativity vs. stagnation is the second stage of adulthood and
happens between the ages of 25-64.
 During this time, people are normally settled in their life and
know what is important to them.
 A person is either making progress in their career or treading
lightly in their career and unsure about if this is what they want
to do for the rest of their working lives.
 .
Integrity vs despair age 65 years
 Ego integrity vs. despair.
 This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time
you have reached the last chapter in your life and retirement is
approaching or has already taken place.
 Many people who have achieved what was important to them
look back on their lives and feel great accomplishment and a
sense of integrity.
 . Conversely, those who had a difficult time during middle
adulthood may look back and feel a sense of despair.
Bibliography
 Erikson on Development in Adulthood: New Insights from the
Unpublished Papers (Dallas Hope Melinda Bird, 2002)
 Erik Erikson: His Life,Work, and Significance (Kit Welchman,
2000 Open University Press) His Work (Robert Coles, 1970)
 Ideas and Identities:The Life andWork of Erik Erikson (Robert S.
Wallerstein & Leo Goldberger, eds., [IUP, 1998])
BRONFENBRENNER
Psychologist
Born in 1917
Developed the ecological theory of human development
Theory of human development
Four types of systems that aid in human development
Micro system
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macro system
Developed the fifth system which is the chrono system.
Rules
Norms and at the same time roles that shape development of human beings.
Bronfenbrenner`s Ecological Theory
Of Development
 The micro system:
 This are the settings in which a person lives in,
this micro system includes the family, peer
group, neighborhood and school life,
 this system helps shape a persons development
in that a person have direct contact with them,
 the nature of this system is that the individuals
who have direct contact with the agent will aid
in the construction of the settings of this
system.
Child Development
The Individual
The micro system
 This system is the relationship
 Microsystems interrelate with each other
 and this can be seen with the relationship between
school life
Community
School life
.
Family
The exosystem
 The exosystem:
 In this system the individual has no active role in
determining the settings but the settings have direct
influence on the individual,
 an example is where the government will build schools
which will create a micro system environment.
 Also a parent may belayed off from work and this will
result to certain outcomes to the family example low
income levels leading to the lack of basic needs in the
family.
The exosystem
The macro system
 This is the system that is caused by the
ideology in the society or the culture of the
society, this influences the individual directly
but the individual has less in determining his
settings, this for example include ideologies
such as democracy,
 capitalism
 and socialism,
 another example of the macro system is
religion which may be Christianity, Islam, also
the ethnic group example Asian or Indian.
The chronosystem
 The chronosystem:
 This system is the last system that Bronfenbrenner developed,
this system as a result of a persons experience in his life,
 this includes environmental events
 and transitions in an individual's life, and this also includes
the history of an individual.