Human Development
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

Development is the sequence of age
related changes that occur as a person
progresses from conception to death . It
encompasses changes in physical, cognitive
and social behaviors.
Major issues
◦ A. Nature versus nurture — are we more
affected by heredity or environment?
◦ B. Continuity versus discontinuity — is
developmental change gradual, or do we progress
through distinct stages ?
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Developmental Research Methods
A. Cross-sectional research involves
studying a variety of ages at a given point in
time.
 B. Longitudinal research follows the same
group of subjects for many years.
 C. In cohort-sequential research, several
age groups are studied periodically.
 D. Historical research revolves around the
particular historical circumstances of an era.

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PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
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The prenatal period extends from
conception to birth, usually nine months.
 It is divided into 3 phases (these are NOT
the same as trimesters)

◦ The germinal stage (first 2 weeks)
◦ The embryonic stage (2 weeks to 2 months)
◦ The fetal stage (2 months to birth)
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The germinal stage
The zygote is formed by the union of sperm
and egg.
 The zygote moves through the fallopian tubes
to uterus.
 7th day, the mass of cells implants itself in the
uterine wall

◦ As many as 1 in 5 pregnancies end at this point if
implantation is not successful.

Placenta starts to form
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Embryonic Stage

Vital organs and bodily systems begin to
form
◦ Heart, spine, and brain emerge
◦ 1 inch long but arms, hands, feet , fingers, toes,
eyes and ears are discernable.

This is a time of great vulnerability
◦ All of the basic systems are forming and
interference or damage at this time will have
wide ranging and permanent effects
◦ Most miscarriages occur at this time.
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Fetal Stage


The baby becomes capable of movement
Organs grow and begin to function
◦ Sex organs start to develop in the 3rd month

Final three months
◦ Brain cells multiply
◦ Respiratory and digestive systems mature
◦ Layer of fat deposited under the skin for
insulation

Between 22 and 26 weeks the fetus
becomes viable or able to live outside the
womb.
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ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS IN PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT.
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Maternal nutrition
Severe malnutrition at this time increases
the risk of birth complications and
neurological defects.
 These effects can last for years or the
entire lifetime.

◦ This has been linked to schizophrenia, heart
disease, diabetes
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Maternal Drug Use

Most drugs consumed by the mother pass
through the placenta
◦ Heroin: babies are born addicted, increased
risk of early death, birth defects
◦ Cocaine: birth complications and
cognitive/learning problems in childhood
◦ Marijuana: cognitive issues, attention and
impulse control issues and problem solving
difficulties
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• Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- a collection of
physical and psychological problems including
irritability, hyperactivity and delayed mental and
motor development, depression, suicide, drug
problems and criminal behaviour
• Tobacco: SIDS, slower cognitive development,
attention deficit, hyperactivity and behaviour
issues.
• Many presciption drugs also can affect the fetus.
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Maternal Illness
The fetus has a very weak immune system
so therefore is basically defenseless
against infections
 All of this damage depends, in part, on
when the mother is exposed to the
danger,

◦ Generally speaking an embryo will be much
more damaged than a fetus.
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http://www.tusculum.edu/faculty/home/tharlow/DEV%20Residential/Working%20folder%20clutter%20removal/images/06
02.jpg
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INFANCY
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Infancy:
◦ 1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy
but is faster than during any other postnatal
period.
◦ 2. Maturation and learning combine to
determine skill development and replace
reflexes.
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Motor/co-ordination development

Humans develop in two ways
◦ 1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development
 Babies gain control over the upper part of their bodies
before the lower part
◦ 2. Proximodistal (from the center outward)
development
 Babies gain control over their torso before their
extremities
◦ Motor development is based on the infants’
experimentation and learning and remembering
of the consequences of their behaviour
 However each baby has their own genetic rate of
maturation determined in part by their genetic make up.
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http://www.westone.wa.gov.au/k12lrcd/learning_areas/child_fam_com/cfc1d/content/001_change_continuity/page_02.htm
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Temperament:
“Easy” vs “Difficult” Babies
Temperament refers to the characteristic
mood, activity level and emotional
reactivity
 Babies exhibit their own characteristic
temperament by between 2 and 3
months.

◦ This is a very good predictor of their
personality at age 10.

Temperament can be described in several
ways
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
Temperament is heavily influenced by
heredity and tends to be stable over time
◦ HOWEVER it is not unchangeable.
Parental reactions and other social
experiences can gradually shape children’s
personality.
 Temperament IS NOT destiny.

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Temperament: Thomas and Chess
1977
• Easy: happy, regular sleeping and eating
patterns, adaptable to change and not
easily upset. 40%
 Slow to warm up: less cheery, predictable
and adaptable. Don’t like new
experiences. 15%
 Difficult; glum, erratic sleepers and eaters,
resistant to change, irritable 10%
 35% of babies are combinations of all
three
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Social and emotional development

Attachment
◦ The close, emotional bonds of affection that
develop between infants and caregivers.
◦ By 6-8 months most babies will show a
preference for the primary caregiver and
protest when separated

Separation Anxiety
◦ Emotional distress seen in many infants when
they are separated from those people they
have formed an attachment with.
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Social and emotional development
1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research
with monkeys demonstrated the importance of
contact comfort.
 2. Attachment style

◦ a. Secure attachment means the infant seeks
proximity, contact and interaction with the caregiver
after separation.
◦ b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be
calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation.

3. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months;
separation anxiety peaks at about 18 months.
◦
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I
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INFANCY: Cognitive development
1. Infants show a preference for face-Iike
patterns.
 2.Visual cliff experiments suggest that
infants perceive depth by the time they
are able to crawl.

◦
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VPaBcT1KdY&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776
◦ These also demonstrate the influence of
other people’s reactions on behaviour.
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776
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CHILDHOOD AND
ADOLESCENCE
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I. Childhood



A. Physical Development
◦ 1. More extensive neural networks continue to develop in
the brain.
◦ 2. Growth rate continues to decline.
B. Social development
◦ 1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of
gender identity.
◦ 2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer
relationships begin td become more important.
C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are
advances in the areas of
◦ 1. Learning
◦ 2. Language
◦ 3. Thinking skills
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Feral Children 1
 Feral Children 2
 Feral Children 3
 Feral Children 4
 Feral Children 5
 Genie
 Child of Rage

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II. Adolescence


A. Physical/sexual development-puberty
B. Social development
◦ 1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.
◦ 2. Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less
recreational and more intimate.

C. Cognitive development
◦ 1. Capability for logical, hypothetical and introspective
thinking develops.
◦ 2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes
develops-metacognition.

D. Adolescent development relates to many
important societal problems, such as suicide, teen
pregnancy and eating disorders.
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ADULT AND LATER
YEARS
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I. Adulthood

A. Physical changes
◦ 1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1 percent a year)
decline.
◦ 2. Women undergo menopause with its hormonal
and reproductive changes.

B. Social changes center around such issues as:
◦ 1. Mate selection
◦ 2. Parenting
◦ 3. Career selection

C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some
people showing declines and others not.
◦ 1. Reaction time appears to decline.
◦ 2. Some adults show a decline in memory.
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II. Later years

A. Physical changes
◦ 1. There is a general decline in muscle tone and
sensory abilities.
◦ 2. Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease
are two disorders that may develop.

B. Social issues include:
◦ 1. Retirement
◦ 2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of
spouse and others, lack of mobility and declining
health

C. Cognitive declines are likely to continue.
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Important Developmental Psychologists
PIAGET, KOHLBERG
AND ERIKSON
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I. Piaget's theory of cognitive
development

Essential Processes
◦ a. Cognitive structures/schema are the
means by which humans acquire and apply
knowledge about their world.
◦ b. Assimilation is the use of available
cognitive structures to gain new information.
◦ c. Accommodation is the process of
modifying cognitive structures in the face of
newly realized complexities in the
environment.
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A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18
months

2. Developmental achievements
◦ a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions
babies engage in as they gradually learn to
explore their environment nonreflexively.
◦ b. Object permanence is the understanding
that objects continue to exist even when
hidden from view.
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B.Preoperational stage, 18
months to 6 years

1. Characteristics
◦ a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend
a situation from a perspective one has not
experienced.
◦ b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to
inanimate things.
◦ c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe
everything is the product of human action.

2. Developmental achievements
◦ a. Symbolic representation and language
◦ b. Readiness for operational thought
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C. Concrete-operational stage, 6
years to early adolescence

1. Characteristics
◦ a. Use of simple logic
◦ b. Use of simple mental manipulations
◦ c. Decline in egocentrism

2. Developmental achievements
◦ a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not
increase or decrease because of a change in form.
◦ b. Reversibility is the understanding that
mathematical operations and other actions can be
undone.
◦ d. Decentration : ability to focus on more than one
aspect of a problem at once
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D. Formal-operations stage,
adolescence and adulthood

1. Characteristics
◦ a. Hypothetical/ What if thinking? and deductive
reasoning How or Why did this happen ?
◦ b. Propositional logic: If this …then that…
◦ c. Abstract thought: Symbolism, discussing Big Ideas
2. Developmental achievement indicates a
readiness for adult intellectual tasks.
 3. Piaget believed that not all adolescents or
adults achieve formal operational reasoning
ability.

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Kohlberg Theory of
Moral Development
Heinz’s Dilemma
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Heinz’s Dilemma






Heinz's wife was near death, and her only hope was a
drug that had been discovered by a pharmacist who
was selling it for an exorbitant price.
The drug cost $20,000 to make, and the pharmacist
was selling it for $200,000.
Heinz could only raise $50,000 and insurance
wouldn't make up the difference.
He offered what he had to the pharmacist, and when
his offer was rejected, Heinz said he would pay the
rest later.
Still the pharmacist refused. In desperation, Heinz
considered stealing the drug.
Would it be wrong for him to do that?
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Kohlberg:
Moral development: The ability to tell
right from wrong and behave accordingly.
 Kohlberg believed that there were levels
and 6 stages in the development of moral
behaviour.
 Kohlberg studied Piaget and tried to apply
his ideas to morality.

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A. Preconventional level : toddler
and preschool
◦ Stage 1:Right and wrong are determined by
what is punished,
 so a child does the right thing to avoid something
bad.
◦ Stage 2, Right and wrong are determined by
what is rewarded
 So a child does the right thing in order to get a
something good
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B. Conventional level: school age
◦ Stage 3, Right and wrong are determined by
the approval or disapproval of the people
close to us
 We want our loved ones to see us as good
◦ Stage 4, Right and wrong are determined by
society's rules and laws which should be
obeyed at all times
 We do what’s right because it’s the law even if it
could hurt our close friends and family
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C. Postconventional level : begins
in teens but may never be
attained
◦ Stage 5, There are general rule about what is
right and wrong but sometimes exceptions
need to be made
◦ Stage 6, Each individual must have their own
moral code.
 Right and wrong are characterized by universal
ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice
for all people, not just the ones close to us.
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Issues
◦ It is not unusual for a person to be operating
on more than one level depending on the
situation.
◦ These stages tend to represent “Western
cultural values of individual human rights” and
are not always the same across the globe.
◦ Some believe that Kohlberg did not do
enough research on the differences between
men and women
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It appears that males are more interested
in the morality of justice: Is this fair? and
 women are more interested in the
morality of care: How will this affect other
people?

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http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/Shows/Doc+Zo
ne/2008-09/ID/1233752062/ LIARS
 http://www.goodcharacter.com/dilemma/archive
.html

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Erik Erikson: The Life-Span
Approach
Vocabulary
CRISIS: the developmental challenge that
must be met at each stage
 Basic Strength: the personality
characteristics and beliefs that derive
from successful resolution of crisis in
each stage

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Psychosocial Stages of Personality
Development
 8 successive stages over the lifespan
 The result of each crisis must be met
adaptively or maladaptively. If the
child responds
◦ adaptively: s/he will acquire strengths
needed for next developmental stage
◦ maladaptively: s/he is less likely to be
able to adapt to later problems

II. The stages
◦ A.Trust versus mistrust — infants
◦ B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt —
toddlers
◦ C. Initiative versus guilt — young children
◦ D. Industry versus inferiority — older
children
◦ E. Identity versus role confusion —
adolescents
◦ F. Intimacy versus isolation — young adults
◦ G. Generativity versus stagnation — adults
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Stage1CRISIS: Basic Trust vs.
Mistrust
Birth to age 1
 Totally dependent on others
 Caregiver meets needs: child develops
trust
 Caregiver does not meet needs: child
develops mistrust
 Basic strength: Hope

◦ Belief our desires will be satisfied
◦ Feeling of confidence
Stage 2 CRISIS: Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
Ages 1-3
 Child able to exercise some degree of
choice
 Child’s independence is thwarted: child
develops feelings of self-doubt, shame in
dealing with others
 Basic Strength: Will

◦ Determination to exercise freedom of choice
in face of society’s demands
Stage 3 CRISIS: : Initiative vs. Guilt
Ages 3-5
 Child expresses desire to take initiative in
activities
 Parents punish child for initiative: child
develops feelings of guilt that will affect
self-directed activity throughout life
 Basic strength: Purpose

◦ Courage to envision and pursue goals
Stage 4 CRISIS: Industriousness vs.
Inferiority
Ages 6-11
 Child develops cognitive abilities to
enable in task completion (school work,
play)
 Parents/teachers do not support child’s
efforts: child develops feelings of
inferiority and inadequacy
 Basci strength: Competence

◦ Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing
and completing tasks

Stages 1-4
◦ Largely determined by others (parents,
teachers)

Stages 5-8
◦ Individual has more control over environment
◦ Individual responsibility for crisis resolution in
each stage
Stage 5 CRISIS: Identity vs. Role
Confusion
Ages 12-18
 Form ego identity: self-image
 Strong sense of identity: face adulthood
with certainty and confidence
 Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity
 Basic strength: Fidelity

◦ Emerges from cohesive ego identity
◦ Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in
relationships with others
Stage 6 CRISIS: : Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Ages 18-35 (approximately)
 Undertake productive work and establish
intimate relationships
 Inability to establish intimacy leads to
social isolation
 Basic strength: Love

◦ Mutual devotion in a shared identity
◦ Fusing of oneself with another person
Stage 7 CRISIS: : Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Ages 35-55 (approximately)
 Generativity: Active involvement in
teaching/guiding the next generation
 Stagnation involves not seeking outlets for
generativity
 Basic strength: Care

◦ Broad concern for others
◦ Need to teach others
Stage 8 CRISIS: : Ego Integrity vs.
Despair
Ages 55+
 Evaluation of entire life
 Integrity: Look back with satisfaction
 Despair: Review with anger, frustration
 Basic strength: Wisdom

◦ Detached concern with the whole of life
III. Critique of Erikson
A. There is no agreed-upon set of
measures for the various stages.
 B. The stages imply a rigidity of
development that may not exist.
 C. The theory may not reflect differences
in personality development between men
and women.

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