Cognition
Chapter 8
General Knowledge
How do we know what
properties something has, and
which of its properties should be
generalized to other objects?
How is the knowledge underlying
these abilities acquired, and how
is it affected by brain disorders?
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Introduction
semantic memory
schemas
We have an enormous amount of information at our
disposal, and we use this information efficiently and
accurately.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Background on Semantic Memory
semantic memory - encyclopedic knowledge, lexical or
language knowledge, conceptual knowledge
category
concept
semantic memory allows us to:
• code objects
• make inferences
• decide which objects are similar
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Feature Comparison Model
Concepts are stored in memory according to a list of
necessary features or characteristics.
Description of the Feature Comparison Model
defining features - necessary
characteristics features
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Feature Comparison Model
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Research on the Feature Comparison Model
sentence verification technique
reaction times to answer true/false
typicality effect—people reach decisions faster when an
item is a typical member of a category, rather than an
unusual member
problem—very few of the concepts we use in everyday life
can be captured by a specific list of necessary, defining
features
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Feature Comparison Model
Conclusions about the Feature Comparison Model
• can account for typicality effect, but research does not
support the idea that category membership is based on
a list of necessary features
• feature comparison model assumes that individual
features are independent of one another, however many
features are correlated
• feature comparison model does not explain how the
members of categories are related to one another
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype Approach
Eleanor Rosch—we organize each category on the basis
of a prototype, which is the item that is most typical and
representative of the category
•prototype
approach—you decide whether an item belongs to
a category by comparing that item with a prototype – personal
experience
•a prototype is an abstract, idealized example; may not exist
•members of a category differ in prototypicality
•graded structure—all members of categories are not created
equal
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Characteristics of Prototypes
1.
Prototypes are supplied as examples of a category
Mervis and colleagues (1976)
prototype ratings for examples of categories
items rated most prototypical were the same items that
other people had supplied most often in the category
norms
accounts for typicality effect—when judging whether an
item belongs to a particular category, typical items
judged faster than atypical items
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Characteristics of Prototypes
2. Prototypes are judged more quickly after semantic
priming
semantic priming effect—people respond faster to an
item if it was preceded by an item with similar
meaning
priming facilitates the responses to prototypes more
than it facilitates the responses to nonprototypes
priming inhibits judgments for nonprototypes (Rosch
color studies)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Priming examples
Orthographic
Morphological
Semantic
Prime
Target
Prime
Target
Prime
Target
corner
CORN
friendly
FRIEND
idea
NOTION
turnip
TURN
punishment
PUNISH
crazy
INSANE
tinsel
TIN
wonderful
WONDER admire
LIKE
bulletin
BULLET
active
ACT
pick
CHOOSE
topple
TOP
greatness
GREAT
touch
FEEL
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Characteristics of Prototypes
3. Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance
category
family resemblance
no single attribute shared by all examples of a
concept
each example has at least one attribute in common
with some other example of the concept
no single attribute serves as the necessary and
sufficient criterion for membership in the
category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
3. Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance
category (continued)
Rosch and Mervis (1975)
prototypicality judgments about members of
several categories
list attributes possessed by each item
the most prototypical item also had the largest
number of attributes in common with the other
items in the category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype Approach
Levels of Categorization
super-ordinate-level categories
basic-level categories
subordinate-level categories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype Approach
Levels of Categorization
1. Basic-level names are used to identify objects
Rosch and colleagues (1976)
ask people to look at pictures and identify objects
people prefer to use basic-level names
produce basic-level names faster than
superordinate or subordinate names
when presented with superordinate or subordinate
names, frequently remember the basic-level
version when later tested for recall
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype Approach
Levels of Categorization
2. Basic-level names are more likely to produce the
semantic priming effect
priming with basic-level names is helpful
priming with superordinate names is not helpful
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Prototype Approach
Levels of Categorization
3. Different levels of categorization activate different
regions of the brain.
superordinate terms are more likely than basic-level
terms to activate part of the prefrontal cortex
subordinate terms are more likely than basic-level
terms to activate part of the parietal region
Example: Animal
Horse
Race Horse
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach
can account for our ability to form concepts for groups that
are loosely structured
can be applied to social relationships, inanimate objects,
nonsocial categories
Problems
concepts can be unstable and variable (e.g., prototype
ratings can shift based on experience)
we often do store specific information about individual
examples of a category
better for general population than for experts
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Individual Differences: Expertise and
Prototypes
expertise
practice
experts construct prototypes in a different fashion
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Individual Differences: Expertise and
Prototypes
Lynch, Coley, and Medin (2000)
tree experts
experts' best examples were very tall, well-behaved trees .
. . rather than typical, average trees
for novices the ratings were based on familiarity rather than
typicality
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Individual Differences: Expertise and
Prototypes
Johnson and Mervis (1997)
experts and novices prefer different levels of categorization
bird-watching experts provide very specific names for birds,
rather than basic-level term
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Individual Differences:
Expertise and Prototypes
Example of Expert Prototypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Exemplar Approach
first learn some specific examples of a concept
(exemplars)
then classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it
resembles those specific examples
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
A Representative Study on the Exemplar
Approach
Heit and Barsalou (1996)
provide first example that comes to mind of seven
basic-level categories
different group rates the typicality of each category and
of each example with respect to "animal"
researchers try to create equation to predict typicality of
the categories based on the exemplars in terms of
frequency and typicality ratings
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Heit and Barsalou (1996) (continued)
exemplar frequency and exemplar typicality did
accurately predict which of the seven categories
were most typical for the superordinate category
"animal"
less typical exemplars increase the correlation
when asked a question about a category, people don't
just consider prototypes, they also include
information about less typical examples of the
category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other
Approaches
• exemplar approach proposes that we do not need
any list of features (as in feature comparison
approach), because all the necessary information is
stored in the specific exemplars
• make decisions about category membership by
comparing to a stored representation (like prototype
approach), but the stored representation is a
collection of numerous specific members of the
category, not a typical member
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Comparing the Exemplar Approach with Other
Approaches (continued)
• do not need to perform any kind of abstraction
process (don't need to devise list of features or a
prototype) which would force you to discard useful,
specific data about individual cases
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Problems with the Exemplar Approach
• exemplar approach may be more suitable for
categories with relatively few members (so as not to
overwhelm semantic memory)
• Requires too much memory
• prototype approach may be more suitable for
categories with numerous members
• individual differences in representations may be
substantial
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Conclusions
•
both approaches may coexist
•
different hemispheres
• left—prototypes
• right—exemplars)
•
different categories may require different strategies
for category formation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Network Models
network models of semantic memory propose a netlike
organization of concepts in memory, with many
interconnections;
the meaning of a concept depends on the concepts to
which it is connected
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Collins and Loftus Network Model
semantic memory is organized in terms of netlike
structures, with numerous interconnections
when we retrieve information , activation spreads to
related concepts
Node = concept
link
spreading activation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
The Collins and Loftus Network Model
sentence verification tasks—activations spreads from the
concept nodes until an intersection is located (or not)
frequently used links have greater strengths; activation
travels faster between those nodes
explains typicality effect, but has been superceded by more
complex theories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Network Models
Anderson's ACT Theories
ACT-R—Automatic Components of Thought-Rational;
attempts to account for all of cognition
propositional network
proposition—smallest unit of knowledge that can be
judged either true or false; abstract representation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
ACT* distinguishes among three types of
memory structures
•
•
•
Declarative memory (LTM) takes the form of a
semantic net linking propositions, images, and
sequences by associations.
Procedural memory (LTM) represents information in
the form of productions
Working memory is that part of long-term memory that
is most highly activated.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
A propositional network
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Productions in Procedural memory
Productions represent knowledge about how we do
things
•
•
•
•
Example: knowledge about how to type the letter "Q" on a
keyboard, about how to drive, or about how to perform
addition.
"IF” a sensory precondition
"THEN” action
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Anderson's ACT Theories (continued)
activation can spread
limited capacity of working memory can restrict the
spreading
if many links are activated simultaneously, then each link
receives relatively little activation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Network Models
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
McClelland and colleagues
parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach—
cognitive processes can be represented by a model in
which activation flows through networks that link
together a large number of simple, neuron-like units
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) - an information processing
paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous
systems, such as the brain, process information
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Compare PDP with Semantic
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Compare PDP with Semantic
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Why use neural networks?
Neural networks is to learn to
associate patterns in input data
to an output on their own
involves modifying the connection
weights
Gives them the ability to
• Derive meaning from
complicated or imprecise data
• Recognize input that has not
seen before Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
How Do Neural Networks Work?
The output of a neuron is a function of the weighted sum
of the inputs plus a bias
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
How Do Neural Networks Learn (to associate
output with an input pattern)?
•
If the output is not correct, the weights are adjusted
according to a formula
•
•
Uses the difference between input and output
Goal - Minimizing the error in the network
•
Most common measure of error is the mean square
error: E = (target – output)2
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Neural Network Example
Handwriting Recognition
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Neural Network Example
Bank Loans
•
•
•
•
Imagine a highly experienced bank manager who must decide
which customers will qualify for a loan. Her decision is based on
a completed application form that contains ten questions.
The bank manager's experience allows her to use "Intuition”
that will enable her to recognize certain patterns that her brain
has become attuned to.
If we had a large number of loan applications as input, along
with the manager's decisions as output, a neural network could
be "trained" on these patterns.
The inner workings of the neural network have enough
mathematical sophistication to reasonably simulate the expert's
intuition.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Parallel Distributed Processing Assumptions
Cognitive processes arise from the interactions of neurons
through synaptic connections.
The knowledge in such interactive and distributed
processing systems is stored in the strengths of the
connections and is acquired gradually through
experience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Three Central Characteristics of PDP
1. Cognitive processes are based on parallel operations,
rather than serial operations. Therefore, many
patterns of activation may be proceeding
simultaneously.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Three Central Characteristics of PDP
2. A network contains basic neuron-like units or nodes,
which are connected together so that a specific node
has many links to other nodes (hence the alternate
name for the theory: connectionism).
PDP theorists argue that most cognitive processes can
be explained by the activation of these networks.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Three Central Characteristics of PDP
3. A concept is represented by the pattern of activity
distributed throughout a set of nodes.
Notice that this view is very different from the
commonsense idea that all the information you know
about a particular person or object is stored in one
specific location in the brain.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Features & Concepts of PDP
serial search vs. parallel search
memory can cope with partial and/or partly incorrect
information
characteristics connected in a mutually stimulating
network
spontaneous generalization—draw a conclusion
about a general category
default assignment—draw a conclusion about a
specific member of a category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Other important characteristics of PDP
1. The connections between these neuron-like units are
weighted, and the connection weights determine
how much activation one unit can pass on to another
unit.
2. When a unit reaches a critical level of activation, it
may affect another unit,
• either by exciting it (if the connection weight is
positive)
•
or by inhibiting it (if the connection weight is
negative).
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Other important characteristics of PDP
3. Every new piece of information you learn will change
the strength of connections among relevant units by
adjusting the connection weights.
4. Sometimes we have only partial memory for some
information, rather than complete, perfect memory.
The brain’s ability to provide partial memory is
called graceful degradation (e.g., tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon, brain function after accident or stroke)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Current Status of PDP Theory
 generally consistent with the neurological design or
neurons and the brain
 works better for tasks in which several processes
typically operate simultaneously; tasks requiring
serial processing may be accounted for by other
models
 PDP explains: word superiority effect, retroactive
interference, category formation, complex decision
making
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Current Status of Theory (continued)
 used to study social psychology, developmental
psychology, cognitive disorders
 can explain situations where learning accumulates
gradually across trials
The parallel distributed processing approach to semantic cognition
James L. McClelland & Timothy T. Rogers
Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4, 310-322 (April 2003)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
The Structure of Semantic Memory
Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
Problems
• not currently structured enough to handle the
subtleties and complexities of semantic memory
• has trouble explaining why we sometimes forget
extremely well-learned information when we learn
additional information
• cannot explain why we sometimes can recall earlier
material when it has been replaced by more current
material
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
schema—generalized knowledge about a situation, an
event, or a person
schema theories especially helpful when psychologists try
to explain how people process complex situations and
events
Scripts
What Your Favorite Porn Says About Who You Are
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/intelligentlust/201201/what-your-favorite-porn-says-about-whoyou-are
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Background on Schemas and Scripts
People encode "generic" information about a situation or
event, then use this information when in that situation
or a similar situation
This “package” of information is called a schema
heuristics—general rules that are typically accurate
schemas can lead to errors
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Background on Schemas and Scripts
Piaget
Bartlett
social psychology
schema therapy
script—simple, well-structured sequence of events
scripts recalled more accurately if identified in advance
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Consistent
Material
Brewer and Treyens (1981)
recall objects from waiting room;
highly likely to recall objects consistent with "office
schema"
"remembered" items that were not in the room, but were
consistent with "office schema"
Neuschatz and coauthors (2002)
"lecture schema"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Inconsistent
Material
people are more likely to recall schema-inconsistent
material when that material is vivid or surprising
Davidson (1994)—read stories describing well-known
schemas; people especially likely to recall schemainconsistent events that interrupted the normal,
expected story
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
The Status of Schemas and Memory Selection
Rojahn and Pettigrew (1992)—meta-analysis; schemainconsistent material was somewhat more memorable
However, when people "remember" events that never
actually happened, they are likely to construct a
schema-consistent event
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Boundary Extension
Boundary extension—our tendency to remember having
viewed a greater portion of a scene than was actually
shown
Intraub and colleagues—see photo then draw replica of
photo; participants consistently produced a sketch that
extended the boundaries beyond the view presented in
the original photo – p. 270
relevance in eyewitness testimony situations
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
abstraction—a memory process that stores the meaning
of a message but not the exact words
verbatim memory—word-for-word recall
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
The Constructive Approach
Bransford and Franks (1971)
listen to sentences from several different stories
recognition test including new items
people convinced that they had seen these new items
before (false alarm)
false alarms particularly likely for complex sentences
consistent with the original schema
false alarms unlikely for sentences violating the meaning
of the earlier sentences
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
The Constructive Approach
constructive model of memory—people integrate
information from individual sentences in order to construct
larger ideas; later cannot untangle the constructed
information from the verbatim sentences
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
The Pragmatic Approach
pragmatic view of memory—people pay attention to the
aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current
goals
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
The Pragmatic Approach
Murphy and Shapiro (1994)
read letters from "Samantha" to cousin or boyfriend
bland vs. sarcastic comments
recognition test on original, paraphrased, or irrelevant
sentences
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Pragmatic Approach
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
The Pragmatic Approach
Murphy and Shapiro (1994) (continued)
correct recognition was higher for sentences from the
sarcastic condition than for sentences in the bland
condition
more false alarms for paraphrases of bland sentences
than sarcastic sentences
more accurate in their verbatim memory for the sarcastic
version than for the bland version
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction
two approaches (Constructive and Pragmatic) quite
compatible
in many cases we integrate information into large schemas
in some cases we know that specific words matter and pay
close attention to precise wording
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
inferences—logical interpretations and conclusions that
were not part of the original stimulus material
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
The Classic Research on Inferences
Bartlett (1932)—memory as the complex interaction
between the participants' prior knowledge and the material
presented; individual's unique interests and personal
background often shape the contents of memory
"The War of the Ghosts" study—Native American story
read and recalled by British students
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
The Classic Research on Inferences
"The War of the Ghosts" study (continued)
Participants tended:
• to omit material that didn't make sense from their own
viewpoint
• to shape the story into a more familiar framework
• to add extra material to the story, making inferences
so that the story made more sense from their
perspective
• to borrow more heavily from their previous knowledge
as time passed before additional recall
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
gender stereotypes—widely shared sets of beliefs about
the characteristics of females and males
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Explicit Memory Task
Dunning and Sherman (1997)
read sentences followed by recognition-memory test
"new" sentences consistent or inconsistent with
gender stereotypes
more likely to mistakenly "remember" a new sentence
as "old" when it was consistent with a gender
stereotype
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks
1. Using neuroscience techniques to assess gender
stereotypes
Osterhout, Bersick and McLaughlin (1997)—ERP
technique
stereotype-consistent sentences vs. stereotypeinconsistent sentences
change in ERPs for stereotype-inconsistent words but
not for stereotype-consistent words
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks
2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess
gender stereotypes
Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002)
Implicit Association Test (IAT)—based on the
principle that people can mentally pair related
words together much more easily than they can
pair unrelated words
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks
2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess
gender stereotypes (continued)
Stereotype-Consistent pairings (male/math vs.
female/arts)
Stereotype-Inconsistent pairings (female/math vs.
male/arts)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Research on Inferences Based on Gender Stereotypes
Implicit Memory Tasks
2. Using the Implicit Association Test to assess
gender stereotypes (continued)
participants responded significantly faster to the
stereotype-consistent parings than to the
stereotype-inconsistent pairings
technique can be used to examine attitudes, as well
as stereotypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Implications of Inferences for Persuasion
Advertising
Harris and colleagues (1989)
read stories containing advertising slogans
direct claim vs. implied claim
people who had seen the implied-claim version often
believed they had seen the direct-claim version
Consumers be careful
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
In Depth: Schemas and Inferences in Memory
Implications of Inferences for Persuasion
Politics
statements can be technically accurate but still
misleading
listeners make incorrect inference
people make inferences only in certain situations; often
recall material in its original form
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Integration in Memory
Integration and Delayed Recall
background knowledge may not encourage schemaconsistent integration if people are tested immediately
after the material is learned
Harris and colleagues (1989)
story consistent with U.S. or traditional Mexican culture
no chaperone/chaperone
recall after 30 minutes—no tendency for the Mexicanschema stores to shift in the direction consistent with
U.S. schemas
after two days—the students had shifted a significant
numberCognition
of story7e,
details
Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas and Integration in Memory
Integration and Limited Memory Capacity
schemas are more likely to influence memory integration
when memory capacity is strained during recall, but not on
a relatively simple task
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Conclusions About Schemas
1. We often select material for memory that is inconsistent
with our schemas.
2. We may indeed remember that we saw only a portion of
an object, rather than the complete object.
3. We frequently recall the exact words of a passage as it
was originally presented.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8
Schemas and Scripts
Conclusions About Schemas
4. We often avoid making inappropriate inferences.
5. We may keep the elements in memory isolated from
each other, rather than integrated together.
6. When we are recalling information from our real-life
experiences—rather than information created by
researchers—we may be more accurate.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 8