Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 1 of 14
CHAPTER 9
Language I: Introduction to Language and
Language Comprehension
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
importance of language
Language skills are complex and impressive.
Demonstration 9.1: How Other Cognitive Processes Contribute to
Language
productivity of language
psycholinguistics
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
phoneme
morpheme
morphology
syntax
grammar
semantics
pragmatics
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 2 of 14
A Caution: Psycholinguistics Is English-Centered
as many as 7,000 spoken languages
English as "outlier language"
1. relatively simple grammar
2. many more irregular pronunciations than other major world
languages
languages differ in terms of:
 the meaning of changes in pitch
 use of passive voice
 whether nouns have grammatical gender
 brain processing
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics
Chomsky's Approach







Language abilities can be explained in terms of a complex system of rules and
principles represented in the minds of language users.
Humans have an innate understanding of the abstract principles of language.
Language learning involves the more superficial characteristics of a particular
language.
Language is modular (language is special, not processed the same as other
cognitive tasks).
surface structure vs. deep structure of sentences
transformational rules
ambiguous sentences
Reactions to Chomsky's Theory
early enthusiasm and later revisions
 transformations
 universal patterns
Recent theories propose that young language learners make only a limited number
of hypotheses about the structure of their language.
Information is conveyed in individual words.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 3 of 14
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics (continued)
Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning
emphasis on human mind and semantics, rather than on the grammatical aspects
of language
cognitive-functional approach—Tomasello
 The function of human language in everyday life is to communicate
meaning to other individuals.
 Cognitive processes are intertwined with language comprehension and
production.
 Children use flexible strategies to create increasingly complex language.
 Adults use language strategically.
 Demonstration 9.2; different perspectives on the same event
 People can use language creatively.
Factors Affecting Comprehension
Negatives
Clark & Chase (1972)
 Negative statements require more processing time than affirmative statements.
 Affirmative statements produce fewer errors.
 Multiple negatives decrease performance.
The Passive Voice
Ferreira and her coauthors (2002)
 sentence plausibility
 The active form of a sentence is easier to understand than the passive form.
Complex Syntax
difficult to understand
can result in memory overload
nested structure
working memory
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 4 of 14
Factors Affecting Comprehension (continued)
Ambiguity
Ambiguous Words
People pause longer when they are processing an ambiguous word.
When people encounter a potential ambiguity, the activation builds up for all
the well-known meanings of the ambiguous item.
People are likely to choose one particular meaning:
1. if that meaning is more common than the alternate meaning
2. if the rest of the sentence is consistent with that meaning
Ambiguous Sentences
 wandering down the wrong path
 especially difficult when initial interpretation is confirmed by long string
of words before error becomes apparent
We can usually understand ambiguous or complicated language, but we
respond more quickly and more accurately when language is
straightforward.
The "Good-Enough" Approach to Language Comprehension
People typically manage to read quite rapidly.
The good-enough approach—Ferreira and colleagues
 People frequently process only part of a sentence.
 People usually do not work hard to create the most accurate,
detailed interpretation of every sentence they read or hear.
 People read quickly, and they try to grasp the general meaning of a
sentence.
 Knowledge of language typically leads to an accurate
interpretation.
 This strategy can sometimes lead to errors in language
comprehension.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 5 of 14
In Depth: Neurolinguistics
neurolinguistics
The neurological basis of language is very complicated.
Individuals with Aphasia
aphasia
Figure 9.1: Broca's Area & Wernicke's Area
 Broca's area/Broca's aphasia—expressive-language deficit
 Wernicke's area/Wernicke's aphasia—receptive-language deficit
People with Broca's aphasia may also have some trouble with language
comprehension.
Many people with Wernicke's aphasia have problems with language production as
well as language comprehension.
The two kinds of aphasia are more similar than researchers once believed.
Some difficulties are only revealed when speakers of particular languages are
studied.
Hemispheric Specialization
lateralization
variations related to handedness
Role in language
left hemisphere
 speech perception/sound interpretation
 meaning
 imagery
right hemisphere
 emotional tone
 humor
 more abstract language tasks
The hemispheres work together:
 interpreting subtle word meanings
 resolving ambiguities
 combining the meaning of several sentences
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 6 of 14
In Depth: Neurolinguistics (continued)
Neuroimaging Research in Adults Without Aphasia
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
 detects change that occur very quickly
 safer than PET scan
 inaccurate when participants move their heads even slightly
 better for language comprehension than language production
1. Using the fMRI method to study language in the left hemisphere.
Kanwisher and colleagues
 attempts to identify specific areas responsible for language
comprehension tasks
 individual differences
language-localizer task
 compensates for individual differences
 creates linguistic map for each person using complex language tasks
 later, test each person on language and non-language tasks
 Specific regions of left frontal lobe responded only to language tasks,
but not to other kinds of cognitive tasks.
 Other research has located portions of the left hemisphere that process
specific linguistic information (e.g., sentences vs. non-words).
2. Using the fMRI method to study language in the right hemisphere.
Demonstration 9.4: Reading Two Sets of Sentences
Gernsbacher and Robertson (2005)—"A"/"The" study
 virtually identical patterns of activation in left hemisphere
 right hemisphere responded differently to connected language ("The"
sentences) than to disconnected language ("A" sentences)
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 7 of 14
In Depth: Neurolinguistics (continued)
How the Mirror System Can Facilitate Communication
mirror system—a network of neurons in the brain’s motor cortex that are
activated when you watch someone perform an action
Rizzolatti and colleagues
 measure responses of single neurons
 monkeys watching a researcher break open a peanut
 Monkeys' responses while watching were similar to when the monkeys
themselves broke open a peanut.
Calvo-Merino and colleagues (2005)
 fMRI data for experts in classical ballet or martial arts
 videos of classical ballet vs. videos of martial arts
 fMRIs for experts in classical ballet showed significantly greater
activation in the motor-cortex areas relevant to ballet movements, and
relatively little activation in the areas relevant to martial arts.
 Individuals who were experts in martial arts showed the reverse activation
pattern.
 In other words, experts can grasp meaning by watching another person,
when they have fully developed the appropriate motor ‘‘vocabulary.’’
Language is not limited to spoken and written messages; physical actions also
important.
Sound-based language is not the only way people communicate.
Mirror neurons may be especially active when we try to listen to someone talking
in a noisy setting—a setting where we really need assistance. Apparently, we can
also comprehend messages from the actions of other people.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 8 of 14
BASIC READING PROCESSES
Reading requires virtually every cognitive process.
Reading is remarkably efficient and accurate.
Demonstration 9.5: Many challenges (in English) are due to irregular
pronunciations, i.e., lack of one-to-one correspondence between alphabet
and speech sounds (phonemes).
Comparing Written and Spoken Language
1. Reading is visual and is spread out across space, whereas speech is
auditory and is spread out across time.
2. Readers can control the rate of input, whereas listeners usually
cannot.
3. Readers can re-scan the written input, whereas listeners must rely
much more heavily on their working memory.
4. Readers usually encounter standardized, error free input, whereas
listeners often need to cope with variability, grammatical errors,
sloppy pronunciation, and interfering stimuli.
5. Readers can see discrete boundaries between words, whereas
listeners often encounter unclear boundaries in spoken language.
6. Readers encounter only the stimuli on a page, whereas listeners
encounter both nonverbal cues and auditory cues, such as
emphasized words and variations in pace.
7. Children require elaborate teaching to master some written
languages—such as written English—but they learn spoken
languages much more easily.
8. Adult readers typically learn new words more quickly when they
appear in a written form, rather than a spoken form.
Both written and spoken language require us to understand words and
appreciate the meaning of sentences.
For adults, scores on reading comprehension tests are highly correlated
with scores on oral comprehension tests.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 9 of 14
Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches
How do we look at a pattern of letters and actually recognize that word?
dual-route approach to reading—skilled readers employ both a directaccess route (recognize word directly through vision) and an indirectaccess route (recognize word by first sounding out the word)
The Direct-Access Route
Bradshaw and Nettleton (1974)
 pairs of words with similar spelling, but different sounds
 first word read silently, second word pronounced out loud
 no interference indicated by no hesitation in pronouncing second word
 Results suggest that people do not silently pronounce each word during
normal reading.
The Indirect-Access Route
People often translate visual stimuli into sound during reading.
Sound coding may enhance working memory.
Luo and coauthors (1998)
 pairs of words judged as related or unrelated in meaning
 Students made errors on pairs where the second word sounds like a word
that is semantically related to the first word (e.g., LION-BARE).
 suggests they were silently pronouncing the word pairs when they made
the judgments
 few errors on pairs where the second word looked like a related word (e.g.,
LION-BEAN)
Word sounds may be especially important when children begin to read. Children
with high phonological awareness have superior reading skills.
children vs. adults—tongue twisters (Demonstration 9.6)
Dual-route Approach




flexible
argues that the characteristics of the reading material determine whether
access is indirect or direct
argues that characteristics of the reader also determine whether access is
indirect or direct (e.g., beginning vs. advanced readers; poor vs. good readers)
consistent with brain-imaging research
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 10 of 14
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children
Language predictability and reading-accuracy scores—less predictable
languages associated with lower reading-accuracy scores in children
Whole-word approach (direct access)




argues readers can directly connect the written word—as an entire unit—with
the meaning that this word represents
argues that children should not learn to emphasize the way a word sounds
emphasizes context within a sentences
problem—Even skilled adult readers achieve only about 25% accuracy when
they look at an incomplete sentence and guess which word is missing.
Phonics approach (indirect access)





Readers recognize words by trying to pronounce the individual letters in the
word.
"sound it out"
argues that speech sound is a necessary intermediate step in reading
emphasizes developing children's awareness of phonemes
Phonics training helps children who have reading problems.
Most educators and researchers support some sort of compromise.
Whole-language approach


Reading instruction should emphasize meaning.
Reading instruction should be enjoyable, to increase children's enthusiasm
about learning to read.
Other issues



Children need to have books they can read outside of school.
reading and social awareness
the importance of basic literacy
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 11 of 14
UNDERSTANDING DISCOURSE
discourse—interrelated language units larger than a sentence
Frederick Bartlett's research—People’s recall of stories becomes more
consistent with their schemas after a long delay.
importance of context, general background knowledge, expertise, scripts,
and schemas
interaction of bottom-up and top-down processing
inferences
Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text
How do we gather information together and remember the various
concepts to form an cohesive and memorable message?
theory of mind—In everyday life, people try to figure out the mental state
of other people in their lives.
Skilled readers
 frequently organize and integrate information into a cohesive story
(e.g., "A" vs. "The" in Demonstration 9.4).
 mental models during reading (e.g., mental map of locations
described in writing)
 construct internal representations (e.g., characters in a story)
 make inferences going beyond the information given
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 12 of 14
Drawing Inferences During Reading
inference during reading—People draw on world knowledge in order to
access information that is not explicitly stated in a written passage.
 People combine the information they are reading, together with the
information presented in a passage. Then they draw a reasonable
conclusion based on that combination.
 Consistent with Theme 1, people are active information processors.
The Constructionist View of Inferences

Readers usually draw inferences about the causes of events and the
relationships between events.
 Readers actively integrate current information with all the relevant
information from previous parts of the text, as well as background
knowledge.
Huitema and coauthors (1993)
 brief story (e.g., Demonstration 9.7)
 far/near placement of test sentence from statement of goal
 consistent/inconsistent relationship between goal and test sentence
 measure reading time for test sentence
 reading time longer for inconsistent statements
Readers try to connect material within a text passage; consult information stored
in long-term memory; try to construct an internally consistent representation.
Other research—Readers create causal inferences in order to integrate discourse
and construct a well-organized story.
Factors That Encourage Inferences




working-memory capacity
metacomprehension skills
expertise
scientific texts
Higher-Level Inferences
Some genres of books activate different expectations.
Inferences may be based on how the reader wants the story to turn out.
Mental preferences for a particular outcome may interfere with judgments about
how the story actually turned out.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 13 of 14
Teaching Metacomprehension Skills
metacognition
metacomprehension—your thoughts about comprehension
Most young children do not have the appropriate cognitive skills for
metacomprehension.
Contemplate your own reading strategies




relevant background knowledge
reading every sentence vs. skimming
monitoring your understanding
noticing when your mind wanders
Teach students to




think out loud
summarize
make predictions about possible outcomes
describe puzzling sections
Individual Differences: Test Anxiety and Reading
Comprehension
 high test anxiety and poor test performance
 thought intrusions or decreased understanding skills?
Cassady (2004)—Test anxiety can decrease students' skills in
understanding the information in their textbooks.








read several paragraphs from a textbook two times
Cognitive Test Anxiety scale
multiple-choice test on textbook material
repeat with different material
study-skills survey
People who were highly anxious tended to perform poorly on the readingcomprehension test.
People who were highly anxious tended to report poorer study skills.
Study skills were not strongly correlated with scores on the multiple-choice
test.
People with high scores on the Cognitive Test Anxiety scale also made
more errors in summarizing textbook material and more errors on a test
of ability to make correct inferences.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e
Outline Chapter 9
Page 14 of 14
Language Comprehension and Latent Semantic Analysis
Landauer and colleagues

latent semantic analysis (LSA)—computer program that can perform
sophisticated language tasks
Arvidsson and colleagues

analyze self-descriptions before and after therapy
Other versions of LSA can:


assess semantic similarity
grade essays
Limitations




cannot match human grader
masters just a small component of language comprehension
ignores syntax
learns only from written text
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.