Overview- Lecture 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Overview- Lecture 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Types of Memory
Simple Span
Working memory
Recall 7 numbers
Computational span
Episodic memory
Free recall
Flashbulb memory
Details of distinctive
event
Semantic memory
Semantic priming
Procedural memory
Riding a bicycle
Implicit memory
Repetition priming
Source memory
Word spoken or read
Tip of tongue
Recall familiar word
Remote memory
Autobiographical
memory
Prospective memory
Events from past
False Memory
Personal events
from past
something in future
Aging and Memory
Age Difference?
Simple span
Working memory
Recall 7 numbers
Computational span
Minimal
Significant
Episodic memory
Free recall
Significant
Flashbulb memory
Details of distinctive
event
Significant
Semantic memory
Semantic priming
None
Procedural memory
Riding a bicycle
None or small
Implicit memory
Repetition priming
None or small
Source memory
Word spoken or read
Tip of tongue
Recall familiar word
Significant
Significant
Remote memory
Autobiographical
memory
Prospective memory
Events from past
Significant
Personal events
from past
None if event important
“Reminiscence bump”
Significant for for timebased (self-initiated)
False Memory
something in future
Overview- Lecture 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
The Phenomenon
The Phenomenon Shown another
way
• Memory
Performance
–
–
–
–
Young
Old
lists (words, digits)
sentences
texts (read/listen)
source/reality
monitoring
– cued recall
– free recall etc.
Is the age difference important?
• Applied Reasons
• Theoretical Reasons
Overview- Lecture 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon in Need of Explaining
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Assumptions of Information
Processing
1. People are active
2. Quantitative and Qualitative aspects of
performance can be examined
3. Series of hypothetical stores
Information Processing Framework: Memory
WORKING
Visuo-spatial
Scratch Pad
LONG-TERM
Episodic
memory
SENSORY
STORE
Central
Executive
Semantic
memory
Procedural
memory
Phonological
Store
MEMORY
MEMORY
If there are age differences
• Is it because of a storage problem?
• Is it because of a processing problem?
• A combination?
Investigating the Nature of
Age-Differences:
1. Process-oriented approach
2. Correlational approach
Overview- Lecture 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon in Need of Explaining
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Explanations: Hypothesis 1
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
decline in working
memory capacity (e.g.,
Wingfield et al., 1988)
Young
Old
Working Memory Task
COMPUTATIONAL SPAN: Complete these addition
problems.
5+6=?
4+3=?
8+9=?
What was the second number in each problem?
Memory:
Effects of Aging on Working Memory
WORKING
Visuo-spatial
Scratch Pad
Clear age-related decrements
•Deficits in spatial memory
Central
Executive
Phonological
Store
MEMORY
•Decrease in articulation rate
•Affects processing of information
Explanations
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking
into account age
differences in working
memory capacity
Young
Old
Working Memory Capacity
Hypothesis
• But why does capacity decrease?
• Is there a more focused (fundamental)
account?
Explanations: Hypothesis 2
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
– decline in working
memory capacity (e.g.,
Wingfield et al., 1988)
– decline in processing
speed (Salthouse, 1996)
Young
Old
Explanations
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking
into account decline in
processing speed (Salthouse,
1996)
Young
Old
What is Speed?
Psychomotor Speed
= amount of time taken to:
•Process a signal
•Prepare a response
•Execute that response
Psychomotor Speed
Reaction time studies:
A
Item called target will appear on screen
Push button when target appears
Psychomotor Speed
Types of reaction time studies:
Simple
Choice
Complex
Target is present or not
Perform one response for one
stimulus
Perform different response for
another stimulus
Multiple targets, many decisions
Psychomotor Speed
Reaction time increases with age:
Age
Reaction
Time
Reflects biological Aging
Psychomotor Speed: Age Difference
Explanations
General Slowing Hypothesis
•Aging causes general decline of
information processing speed
Age Complexity Hypothesis
•Age differences increase with
increasing complexity of task
Information Processing:
Psychomotor Speed
Brinley Plot
•Plot of RT of old
to RT of young
•Supports the
General Slowing
Hypothesis
Sliwinski & Hall, 1998
Impact on Working Memory Operations
Speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse)
Reductions in
CNS capacity
Limited energy
for cognitive
processes
Decreased
working
memory
Mechanisms
• Limited Time Mechanism
• Simultaneity Mechanism
Speed Hypothesis
• The hypothesis to beat.
• Is speed the whole story?
Review
Attentional Resources (Salthouse)
Reductions in
CNS capacity
Limited energy
for cognitive
processes
Increased
Reaction
Time
Impact on Working Memory
Speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse)
Reductions in
CNS capacity
Limited energy
for cognitive
processes
Decreased
working
memory
Why else might RT increase and
Working Memory decrease?
Focus on Attention
What is Attention?
Attention=
•Ability to focus or concentrate
•Shift focus as needed
Information
Further cognitive operations
Information Processing:
Attention (see Text on this section)
Type of Attention
Positive priming
Example
Effects of Aging
Prime decreases search Should benefit older
adults
time for target
Negative priming
Target on one trial is
distractor on next
Cuing
Cue indicates where
target will appear
Memory searchTarget held in memory
consistent mapping and does not change
Negative
Results not clear
Older adults can develop
automatic search
Memory searchvaried mapping
Target changes with
distractor
Divided attention
Dichotic listening
Significant but not when
individual tasks controlled
Sustained attention
Watch screen for event
Increase with frequency,
unpredictability of target
Negative
Another reason RT increases
Inhibitory Deficits (Hasher & Zacks)
Attention requires:
Limited
resources for
inhibition
•Activation
•Inhibition
Increased
Reaction
Time
Impact on Working Memory
Inhibitory Deficit (Hasher & Zacks)
Memory requires:
Accumulation
of “mental
clutter”
•Inhibit irrelevant information
•Remove unnecessary information
Working
memory
deficits
Explanations: Hypothesis 3
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
– decline in working
memory capacity (e.g.,
Wingfield et al., 1988)
– decline in processing
speed (Salthouse, 1996)
– declining inhibitory
efficiency (Hasher & Zacks, 1988)
Young
Old
Explanations
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking
into account age
differences in
inhibition
Young
Old
Evidence for Decline in
Inhibition
• Stroop Interference
• Negative Priming
Stroop Interference
INSTRUCTIONS: Read the color of the INK
red
yellow
green
EFFECT: Response is slower when colors don’t
match than when colors match the ink
Negative priming
INSTRUCTIONS: Identify the RED letter
PRIMING TRIAL:
A
X
CRITICAL TRIAL:
A
X
EFFECT: Response is slower to A
Explanations: Summary
• Cognitive Basis
Performance
– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking
into account cognitive
mediators…but not all
(Kwong See & Ryan, 1995)
Young
Old
– other mediators?
Explanations: Hypothesis 4
Performance
• Social Cognitive Basis
– internalizing negative
old age stereotypes
compromises
performance?
Young
Old
– Some evidence (e.g.,
Levy & Langer, 1994)
Overview- Lecture 6
•
•
•
•
•
•
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
Memory Training
Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Memory Training
• EIEIO classification
• External Memory Aids
• Internal Memory Aids
Memory Training
• Characteristics of a successful program
–
–
–
–
own memory strategies
self-guided practice
consistency with preferred learning style
cognitive restructuring
• Some good applications
Overview- Lecture 6
•
•
•
•
•
•
Types of Memory: Age Differences
The Phenomenon
Information Processing Framework
Cognitive and Social Cognitive
Explanations
Memory Training
Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Myth Busing: Facts on Aging
Revisited
• # 8 Aged drivers have fewer
accidents per driver than those
under age 65.
»True
Myth Busing: Facts on Aging
Revisited
• #12
Old people usually take
longer to learn something new.
True
Myth Busing: Facts on Aging
Revisited
• # 14 Older people tend to
react slower than younger
people.
True