Memory
The Phenomenon of Memory
What is memory?
 Memory
 persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of
information
• Flashbulb memories
 a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event
The Structure of Memory
• Information Processing Model
• Memory involves
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
• A memory is not stored as one
object
Information Processing
 Encoding
 the processing of information into the
memory system
 Storage
 the retention of encoded
information over time
 Retrieval
 process of getting information out
of memory
Three types of memory
 Sensory Memory
 the immediate, initial recording of
sensory information in the memory
system
 Short-Term Memory
 activated memory that holds a few
items briefly
 Long-Term Memory
 the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
Sensory Memory
• The initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system
• Iconic Memory
• A fleeting photographic memory
• Lasts only a few tenths of a second
A Model of Memory
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Encoding
Long-term
memory
Retrieving
Memory
Encoding: Getting
Information In
How We Encode
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic
How We Encode
 Automatic Processing
 unconscious encoding of incidental information
 space
 time
 frequency
 well-learned information
 word meanings
 we can learn automatic processing
 reading backwards
How we encode
• .citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp
luftroffE
• Effortful processing can become
automatic.
• .ecitcarp elttil a sekat tsuj tI
• It just takes a little practice.
• .siht ta retteb gnitteg era ouy that
ees ydaerla nac ouY
• You can already see that you are
getting better at this.
How We Encode
 Effortful Processing
 requires attention and conscious
effort
 Rehearsal
 conscious repetition of information
 to maintain it in consciousness
 to encode it for storage
Effortful Processing
• Studied by Hermann
Ebbinghaus
• Principles of effortful
processing
• The amount
remembered depends
on the time spent
learning
• Spacing effect
• Serial position effect
What We Encode
• We encode meaning
• We encode imagery
• We encode organization
Encoding Meaning
• Semantic Encoding
 encoding of meaning
 including meaning of words
 Acoustic Encoding
 encoding of sound
 especially sound of words
 Visual Encoding
 encoding of picture images
Encoding Meaning
Encoding Meaning
• Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at
Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't
mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a
wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is
taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the
rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl
mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit
porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn
mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by
istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.
Encoding Imagery
 Imagery
 mental pictures
 a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic
encoding
 Mnemonics
 memory aids
 especially those techniques that use
vivid imagery and organizational devices
• Mnemonics
• Method of Loci
• Peg word
• Chunking
Organizing Information
 Chunking
 organizing items into familiar, manageable units
 like horizontal organization
 1776149218121941
 (1776) (1492) (1812) (1941)
 often occurs automatically
 use of acronyms
 HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
 ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s
Ice Cream
Encoding: Chunking
 Organized information is more easily recalled
Encoding: Hierarchies
 Hierarchies: complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories and
subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Chunks
Organization
Hierarchies