Chapter 1
Introduction to Human
Anatomy and Physiology
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Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy deals with the structure (morphology) of
the body and its parts, in other words, what are
things called?

Physiology studies the functions of these parts or
asks the question, “how do they work?

The two disciplines are closely interrelated because
the functional role of a part depends on how it is
constructed.
Homeostasis:


Maintenance of a stable internal environment is called
homeostasis.
Homeostasis is regulated through control systems which have
receptors, a set point and effectors in common. Examples
include:
a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body
temperature in a manner similar to the functioning of a home
heating thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressuresensitive receptors to regulate blood pressure.
Homeostasis:


Many of the body's homeostatic controls are
negative feedback mechanisms.
Each individual uses homeostatic
mechanisms to keep body levels within a
normal range; normal ranges can vary from
one individual to the next.
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Levels of Organization:

Organization of the Human Body

Major features of the human body include its
cavities, membranes, and organ systems.
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
Body Cavities:
The body can be divided into an appendicular portion (upper
and lower limbs) and an axial portion (head, neck, and trunk),
which includes a dorsal and a ventral cavity. Organs within these
cavities are called viscera.
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
Organ Systems:
Body Covering
a. The integumentary system, including
skin, hair, nails, and various glands,
covers the body, senses changes outside
the body, and helps regulate body
temperature.
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Support and Movement
a. The skeletal system, made up of bones and
ligaments. It supports, protects, provides
frameworks, stores inorganic
salts, and
houses blood-forming tissues.
b. The muscular system consists of the muscles
that provide body movement, posture, and
body heat.
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Integration and Coordination
a. The nervous system consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It
integrates information incoming information
from receptors and sends
impulses to
muscles and glands.
b. The endocrine system, including all of the
glands that secrete hormones, helps to integrate
metabolic functions

Transport
a. The cardiovascular system, made up of the
heart and blood vessels, distributes
oxygen
and nutrients throughout the body
while
removing wastes from the cells.
b. The lymphatic system, consisting of
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus,
and spleen, drains excess tissue fluid and
includes cells of immunity.
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
Absorption and Excretion
a. The digestive system is made up of the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, intestines and accessory
organs. It receives, breaks
down, and
absorbs nutrients.
b. The respiratory system exchanges gases
between the blood and air and is made up
of the lungs and passageways.
c. The urinary system, consisting of the kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and urethra,
removes
wastes from the blood and helps
to
maintain water and electrolyte balance.

Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new
organisms.
i.
The male reproductive system consists
of the testes, accessory organs, and
vessels that conduct sperm to the penis.
ii.
The female reproductive system consists
of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
and external genitalia. The female
reproductive system also houses the
developing offspring.
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Anatomical Terminology
Relative Positions:
1. Terms of relative position are used to describe
the location of a part relative to another part.
2. Terms of relative position include:
superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial,
lateral, proximal, distal, superficial
(peripheral), and deep.

Body Sections:
1. A sagittal section divides the body into right
and left portions.
2. A transverse section divides the body into
superior and inferior portions. It is often
called a “cross section”.
3. A coronal section divides the body into
anterior and posterior sections.
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
Body Regions
1. The abdominal area can be divided into nine
regions.
2. Terms used to refer to various body
regions are depicted in Fig. 1.13.
Chapter 2
Chemical Basis of Life

Introduction:
A. Chemistry deals with the composition of
substances and how they change.
B. A knowledge of chemistry is necessary
for the understanding of physiology
because of the importance of chemicals
in body processes.
Structure of Matter:
A. Elements and Atoms:
1.
Matter is anything that takes up space.
2.
All matter is composed of elements, 92 of which occur
naturally.
3.
Living organisms require about 20 elements, of which
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are most
abundant.
4.
Elements are composed of atoms; atoms of different
elements vary in size and in how they interact.
C. Bonding of Atoms:
1. Atoms form bonds by gaining,
losing, or sharing electrons.
2. Electrons are found in shells
around the nucleus.
a. The first energy shell holds
two electrons; the other energy
shells each hold eight electrons
when on the outside.
C. Bonding of Atoms:
3.
Atoms with incompletely filled
outer shells tend to be reactive to
form stable outer shells of 8.
4.
When atoms gain or lose
electrons, they become ions with
a charge. Whether they gain or
lose will depend on how many
they have in the outer shell to
start with.
5.
Oppositely-charged ions attract
each other and form an ionic
bond.
E. Formulas:
1.
A molecular formula represents the
numbers and types of atoms in a molecule.
2.
Various representations, called structural
formulas, can be used to illustrate
molecules.
Chemical Reactions

H2O + CO2 > HCO3- +H+
G. Acids and Bases:
1. Substances that release ions in water are called
electrolytes.
2. Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water
are called acids.
3. Electrolytes that release ions that combine with
hydrogen ions in water are called bases.
G. Acids and Bases:
4.The concentrations of H+ & OH- in the
body is very important to physiology.
5.pH represents the concentration of
hydrogen ions [H+] in solution.
Chemical Constituents of Cells:
A. Compounds that contain both hydrogen and
carbon are called organic, the others are inorganic
1. Water
B.
Inorganic Substances
a. Water is the most abundant compound in
living things and makes up two-thirds of the
weight of adults.
b. Water is an important solvent so most metabolic
reactions occur in water.
B.
Inorganic Substances
2. Oxygen
a.
Oxygen is needed to release energy
from nutrients and is used to drive
the cell's metabolism.
3. Carbon Dioxide
a.
Carbon dioxide is released as a waste
product during energy-releasing
metabolic reactions.
C. Organic Substances:
1. Carbohydrates
a. Carbohydrates provide energy for cellular activities and are
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
b. Carbohydrates are made from monosaccharides (simple
sugars);
disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined
together; complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), such as
starch, are built of many sugars.
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2.
Lipids:
a. Lipids are insoluble in water and include
phospholipids, and steroids.
fats,
b. Fats supply energy, are composed of oxygen,
carbon, and hydrogen, and are built from
glycerol and three fatty
acids.
2.
Lipids:
c. Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty
acids,
and a phosphate group, and are important in cell
structures.
d. Steroids are complex ring structures, and include
cholesterol, which is used to synthesize the sex
hormones.
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3.
Proteins:
a. Proteins have a great variety of functions in the
body---as structural materials, as energy sources,
as certain hormones, as receptors on cell
membranes, as antibodies, and as enzymes to
catalyze metabolic reactions.
3.
Proteins:
b. Proteins contain C, O, H, and nitrogen atoms;
some also contain sulfur.
c. Building blocks of proteins are the amino acids,
each of which has a carboxyl group, an amino
group and a side chain called the R group.
3.
Proteins:
d. Proteins have complex shapes held together by
hydrogen bonds.
e. Protein shapes, which determine how proteins
function, can be altered (denatured) by pH,
temperature, radiation, or chemicals.
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4. Nucleic Acids:
a. Nucleic acids form genes and take part protein
synthesis.
b. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and phosphorus, which are bound into building
blocks called nucleotides.
4.
Nucleic Acids:
c. Nucleic acids are of two major types: DNA (with
deoxyribose) and RNA (with ribose).
d. RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in protein
synthesis; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the
molecular code in genes.
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Chapter 3
Cells
Introduction:
A.The human body consists of 75 trillion cells
that vary considerably in shape and size yet
have much in common.
B.Differences in cell shape make different
functions possible.
A Composite Cell:
A. A composite cell includes many different
cell structures.
B.A cell consists of three main parts---the
nucleus, the cytoplasm, and the cell
membrane.
C. Within the cytoplasm are specialized
organelles that perform specific functions for
the cell.
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D. Cell Membrane:
1. The cell membrane regulates the movement
of substances in and out of the cell,
participates in signal transduction, and helps
cells adhere to other cells.
D. Cell Membrane:
2. General Characteristics
a.
The cell membrane is
extremely thin and selectively
permeable.
b.
It has a complex surface with
adaptations to increase
surface area.
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D. Cell Membrane:
3. Cell Membrane Structure:
a. The basic framework of the cell membrane
consists of a double layer of phospholipids,
with fatty acid tails turned inward.
b. Molecules that are soluble in lipids (gases,
steroid hormones) can pass through the lipid
bilayer.
D. Cell Membrane:
c. Embedded cholesterol molecules strengthen the
membrane and help make the membrane less
permeable to water-soluble substances.
d. Many types of proteins are found in the cell
membrane, including transmembrane proteins
and peripheral membrane proteins.
D. Cell Membrane:
e. Membrane proteins perform a variety of functions
and vary in shape.
f. Some proteins function as receptors on the cell
surface, starting signal transduction.
g. Other proteins aid the passage of molecules and
ions.
D. Cell Membrane:
h. Proteins protruding into the cell anchor supportive
rods and tubules.
i. Still other proteins have carbohydrates attached;
these complexes are used in cell identification.
Membrane proteins called cellular adhesion
molecules (CAMs) help determine one cell ’ s
interactions with others.
Movements Through Cell Membranes
A. The cell membrane controls what passes through it.
B.
Mechanisms of movement across the membrane
may be passive, requiring no energy from the
cell (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis,
and filtration) or active mechanisms, requiring
cellular energy (active transport, endocytosis,
and exocytosis).
Movements Through Cell Membranes
(cont.)
C. Passive Mechanisms
1. Diffusion
a.
Diffusion is caused by the random motion
of molecules and involves the movement
of molecules from an area of greater
concentration to one of lesser
concentration until equilibrium is
reached.
Movements Through Cell Membranes (cont.)
C1b. Diffusion enables oxygen and carbon dioxide
molecules to be exchanged between the air and
the blood in the lungs, and between blood and
tissue cells.
Movements Through Cell Membranes
C2.Facilitated Diffusion
a.
Facilitated diffusion uses membrane
proteins
that function as carriers to move
molecules (such as glucose) across the cell
membrane.
b. The number of carrier molecules in the
cell membrane limits the rate of this process.
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Movements Through Cell Membranes
C3.Osmosis
a.
Osmosis is a special case of
diffusion in which water moves from an
area of greater water concentration (where
there is less osmotic pressure) across a
selectively permeable membrane to an area
of lower water concentration (where there
is greater osmotic pressure).
Movements Through Cell Membranes
A solution with the same osmotic pressure as body
fluids is called isotonic; one with higher osmotic
pressure than body fluids is hypertonic; one with
lower osmotic pressure is hypotonic.
Movements Through Cell Membranes
C4. Filtration
a. Because of hydrostatic pressure, molecules can be
forced through membranes by the process of
filtration. Blood pressure is a type of hydrostatic
pressure.
Movements Through Cell Membranes
D. Active Mechanisms
1.
Active Transport
a.
Active transport uses ATP to move
molecules from areas of low
concentration to areas of high
concentration through carrier
molecules in cell membranes.
b.
As much as 40% of a cell's energy
supply may be used to fuel this
process.
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G. Cell Differentiation
1. The process by which cells develop into
different types of cells
with specialized
functions is called differentiation.
2. Cell differentiation reflects genetic control
of the nucleus as certain genes are turned
on while others are turned off.
Cell Differentiation