PSYCHOLOGY
AN EXPLORATION
Second Edition
CHAPTER
1
the science of
psychology
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Why study psychology?
Psychology not only helps you understand why people (and animals)do
the things they do, but it also helps you better understand yourself and
your reactions to others. Psychology can help you comprehend how
your brain and body are connected, how to improve your learning
abilities and memory, and how to deal with the stresses of life, both
ordinary and extraordinary. In studying psychology, an understanding
of the methods psychologists use is crucial because research can be
flawed, and knowing how research should be done can bring those
flaws to light. And finally, psychology and its research methods
promote critical thinking, which can be used to evaluate not just
research but also claims of all kinds, including those of advertisers and
politicians.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objectives
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1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
Definition and goals of psychology
Structuralism and functionalism
Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow and Rogers
Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Case studies and surveys
Correlational technique
Experimental approach and terms
Placebo and the experimenter effects
Elements of a real-world experiments
Ethical concerns in conducting research
Principles of critical thinking
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
What is Psychology?
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
• The scientific study of behavior and
mental processes.
– Behavior
 Overt actions and reactions
– Mental processes
 Internal, covert activity of the mind
– Scientific
 Prevent possible biases from leading to
faulty observations
 Precise and careful measurement
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Goals of Psychology
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
• Description
– What is happening?
• Explanation
– Why is it happening?
– Theory
 Explanation of a set of observations or
facts
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Goals of Psychology
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
• Prediction
– Will it happen again?
• Control
– How can it be changed?
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Structuralism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
• Structuralism
– Focused on structure or basic elements
of the mind.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Structuralism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
• Wilhelm Wundt
– Established first psychology laboratory
 Leipzig, Germany in 1879
– Developed objective introspection
 Examine and measure personal thought
and mental activities
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt participates in an experiment in his laboratory as students look on. Courtesy
of General Information Center
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Structuralism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
• Edward Titchener
– Wundt’s student
– Brought structuralism to America.
• Margaret Washburn
– Titchener’s student
– First woman to earn a Ph.D. in
psychology.
• Structuralism died out in early 1900s.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Functionalism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
• Functions in the real world
• How people to adapt, live, work, and
play
• Proposed by William James
• Influenced modern fields:
– Educational psychology
– Evolutionary psychology
– Industrial/organizational psychology
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Gestalt Psychology
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• Max Wertheimer
– Perception can only be understood as a
complete event.
– Understanding patterns, whole figures
• Gestalt
– German translated as “organized whole”
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Gestalt Psychology
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• Ideas are now part of modern
cognitive psychology
– Field focuses on perception, learning,
memory, thought processes, and
problem solving
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 1.1 A Gestalt Perception
The eye tends to “fill in” the blanks hereand sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or
a broken line.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalysis
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• Developed by Sigmund Freud
– Trained as a physician
– Worked with patients with nervous
disorders
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud walks with his daughter Anna, also a psychoanalyst. © Hulton Archive/Getty
Images
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalysis
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• Main Ideas
– Unconscious (unaware) mind
 Where threatening impulses and desires
are repressed
– Repressed urges create nervous
disorders
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalysis
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• Freud’s concepts
– Stressed importance of early childhood
experiences
– Formed the basis for modern therapy
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Behaviorism
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• Ivan Pavlov
– Russian physiologist
– Studied digestive processes
– Reflex can occur with new and unrelated
stimulus
– Conditioned dogs to salivate to
metronome
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Physiologist Ivan Pavlov uses a dog to demonstrate the conditioned reflex to students at the Russian Military
Medical Academy. © Bettmann/Corbis
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Behaviorism
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
• John B. Watson
– Developed the “science of behavior”
– Psychology should focus on observable
behavior
 Must be directly seen and measured
 Ignore notion of unconscious
– Believed phobias were learned through
conditioning.
 Case of “Little Albert”
– Child conditioned to fear a white rat
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
American psychologist John Watson is known as the father of behaviorism. Behaviorism focuses only on
observable behavior. Courtesy of Underwood & Underwood/Bettmann/Corbis
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Psychodynamic perspective
– Modern version of psychoanalysis
– Focus on development of a sense of self
– Discover motivations behind behavior
 No emphasis on sexual motivations
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Behavioral perspective
– B. F. Skinner
 Developed theory of how voluntary
behavior is learned
 Introduced concept or reinforcement
– Perspective was major force in the
twentieth century
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner puts a rat through its paces. What challenges might arise from applying information
gained from studies with animals to human behavior? Courtesy of Nina Leen/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Humanistic perspective
– People have free will to choose destiny
– Early contributors:
 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers
– Self-actualization
 Achieving one’s full potential or actual
self
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Humanistic perspective
– Modern Humanism
 Used in psychotherapy
 Assists in self-understanding
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Cognitive perspective
– Major force emerging in 1960’s
– Focus on memory, intelligence,
perception, problem-solving, and
learning.
– Cognitive neuroscience
 Physical workings of brain and nervous
system
 Use imaging techniques
– MRI, PET
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
These scans show loss of gray matter in the brains of individuals with very early-onset, adolescent schizophrenia
over a five-year period, highlighting one focus of the biological perspective. Courtesy of The University of
California, Los Angeles
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Sociocultural perspective
– Examines relationship between social
behavior and culture
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Biopsychological perspective
– Behavior is a result of biological events
in the body
 Genetic influences, hormones, and the
activity of the nervous system
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
• Evolutionary perspective
– Examines biological bases of universal
mental characteristics that all humans
share
 Seeks to explain mental strategies and
traits
 Mind is seen as set of informationprocessing machines
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychologists with an evolutionary perspective would be interested in how this couple selected each other as
partners. Photo credit: Bill Aron/PhotoEdit
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of Psychological Professionals
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
• Psychiatrist
– Medical doctor (M.D.)
– Specializes in the diagnosis and
treatment of psychological disorders.
• Psychoanalyst
– Psychiatrist or a psychologist
– Special training in Freudian theory and
psychoanalysis.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of Psychological Professionals
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
• Psychiatric social worker
– Social worker trained in therapy
methods
– Focus on the environmental conditions
impacting mental disorders
 Poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug
abuse.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of Psychological Professionals
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
• Psychologist
– Academic degree and specialized
training in psychology
– Work in counseling, teaching, and
research
– Specialization can include clinical,
counseling, developmental, social,
personality theory
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 1.2 Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology
(a) There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although not obvious from the chart,many
psychologists work in more than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting
and teach at a university or college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart shows the specialty areas of
psychologists who recently received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007)
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Scientific Methodology
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
• Scientific Method
– System of gathering data
– Bias and error in measurement are
reduced
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Scientific Methodology
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
• Steps in the Scientific Method:
1. Perceive the question
2. Form hypothesis
– Tentative explanation of a phenomenon
based on observations
3. Test the hypothesis
4. Draw conclusions
5. Report results
– Allows for replication
• Demonstrate reliability of results
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The Scientific Method
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• Naturalistic Observation
– Watch animals or humans behave in
their normal environment
– Advantage:
 Realistic picture of behavior
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• Naturalistic Observation
– Disadvantages:
 Observer effect
– People or animals behave differently when
they know they are being observed
– May reduce observer effect through
participant observation
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• Naturalistic Observation
– Disadvantages:
 Observer bias
– Observers see what they expect to see
– May reduce observer bias through use of
blind observers
 Each naturalistic setting is unique
– Observations may not hold
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This researcher is studying the behavior of a group of lemurs. Is this naturalistic observation? Why or why not?
Photo credit: Cyril Ruoso/Photolibrary
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• Laboratory Observation
– Watching animals or humans in a
laboratory setting
• Advantages:
– Control over environment
– Allows use of specialized equipment
– Can lead to the development of
hypotheses
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
• Disadvantage:
– Artificial situation that may result in
artificial behavior
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The researcher in the foreground is watching the children through a one-way mirror to get a description of their
behavior. Observations such as these are just one of many ways that psychologists have of investigating
behavior. Why is it important for the researcher to be behind a one-way mirror? Photo credit Jeff Greenberg/The
Image Works
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
• Case study
– Study of one individual in great detail
– Advantages:
 Tremendous amount of detail
 Good for studying rare conditions
– Disadvantages:
 Cannot apply results easily
to similar individuals
 Vulnerable to bias of researcher
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
After a gunpowder explosion, Phineas Gage ended up with a steel rod in his head. A model of Gage's head is
shown next to his actual skull. Visible above the left side of his mouth is the entry point of the steel rod, and the
exit point is at the top of the skull. Courtesy of The Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
• Survey
– Researcher asks a series of questions
about the topic under study
 Given to a representative sample
 Population
– Randomly selected sample of subjects
from a larger group
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
• Survey
– Advantages:
 Data from large numbers of people
 Study covert behaviors
– Disadvantages:
 Have to ensure representative sample (or
results not meaningful).
 People not always accurate (courtesy
bias)
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• Correlation
– Measure of the relationship between two
variables
– Variable
 Anything that can change or vary
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• Correlation
– Correlation coefficient (r)
 Mathematical calculation
 Measures
– Direction of the relationship
– Strength of the relationship
– Knowing the value of one variable
allows prediction of the value of the
other variable
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• Correlation coefficient ranges from –
1.00 to +1.00.
• Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger
the relationship
– No correlation = 0.0.
– Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• Positive correlation
– Variables are related in the
same direction.
 As one increases, the other
increases
 As one decreases,
the other decreases
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
© The New Yorker Collection 1994 Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
• Negative correlation
– Variables are related in
opposite directions
– As one increases, the other
decreases
• Correlation does not prove
causation
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 1.3 These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation.
It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The Experiment
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
• Allows researchers to determine cause
and effect
• Deliberate manipulation of variables
• Holding constant other variables
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The act of hitting each other with toy swords could be part of an operational definition of aggressive behavior.
Photo credit Bill Aron/PhotoEdit
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Features of the Experiment
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
• Operational definition
– Specifies steps or procedures used to
control or measure the experimental
variables
• Independent variable (IV)
– Variable manipulated by experimenter
• Dependent Variable (DV)
– Represents measured response of the
experimental manipulation
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Features of the Experiment
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
• Experimental Group
– Receives the manipulation
• Control Group
– Not subjected to the independent
variable
– Controls for other factors (confounds)
that may affect the outcome
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Features of the Experiment
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
• Random Assignment
– Participants are assigned randomly to
control or experimental group
– Each participant has equal chance of
assignment to experimental or control
groups
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Placebo and Experimenter Effects
LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
• Placebo effect
– Expectations of the participants can
influence their behavior
– Classic control-give placebo to control
group
• Experimenter effect
– Experimenter’s expectations
unintentionally influence study
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Placebo and Experimenter Effects
LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
• Single-blind study
– Subjects do not know if they are in the
experimental or the control group
– Reduces placebo effect
• Double-blind study
– Neither experimenter or participants
know if in experimental or control group
– Reduces placebo and experimenter
effects
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Experimental Example
LO 1.12 Elements of a real world experiment
• Stereotypes, athletes and college test
performance
– High stereotype threat question asked
before intellectual assessment
(experimental group)
– High stereotype threat question asked
after intellectual assessment
– Before test group scored lower on
intellectual assessment than after group
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Experimental Example
LO 1.12 Elements of a real world experiment
• Stereotypes, athletes and college test
performance
– Questions to consider:
 What extraneous variables might be
affecting the students’ test performance?
 What might educators do to try to
prevent the effect of the “dumb jock”
negative stereotype on college athletes?
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
• Institutional review board
– Professional group that reviews the
safety, consideration of participants
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
• Common ethical guidelines:
1. Rights and well-being of participants
must be weighed against the study’s
value to science.
2. Participants must be allowed to make
an informed decision about
participation.
3. Deception must be justified.
4. Participants may withdraw from the
study at any time.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
• Common ethical guidelines:
5. Participants must be protected from
risks or told explicitly of risks.
6. Investigator must debrief participants,
telling the true nature of the study and
expectations of results.
7. Data must remain confidential.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
• Animal research
– Attempt to answer questions not
obtainable with human research
– Avoid exposure to unnecessary pain or
suffering
– Animals are used in approximately 7%
of psychological studies
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Critical Thinking
LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking
• Is making reasoned judgments about
claims.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Critical Thinking
LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking
• Four Basic Criteria:
1. There are very few “truths” that do not
need to be subjected to testing.
2. All evidence is not equal in quality.
3. Just because someone is considered to
be an authority or to have a lot of
expertise does not make everything
that person claims automatically true.
4. Critical thinking requires an open
mind.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White