CHAPTER 5
WINDS OF DEATH
- A chapter about the production and
release of toxic compounds
- Looks at the evolution of chemical
hazard
--- a production of the interaction
of the development of the
industry and how society
utilizes chemical products
I can’t think of a better example of the chemical
specialization than the pesticide industry
Insecticide
Fungicide
Rodenticide
Acaricide
Miticide
Avicide
Piscicide
Herbicide
Nematicide
Bactericide
Algicide
Molluscicide
Slimicide
Ovicide
Pesticide-class chemicals not
carrying a “-icide” suffix
Disinfectants
Growth regulators
Defoliants
Desiccants
Repellents
Attractants
Chemosterilants
Combining industrial, economic, political,
and social contexts, gives a better
understanding of where and why
chemical hazards occur
… and why some people and places
are more susceptible to this risk
Bhopal, India (1984)
Guadalajara, Mexico (1992)
Seveso, Italy (1997)
- Accidental releases occur daily,
some small and unnoticed. Others
resulting in significant damage to
both people and property
Forms of Impacts
(1) disruption of organic lifesupport systems
(2) damage to wildlife
(3) damage to human health
(4) damage to property
(5) nuisance effects
(smell; taste;sight)
Types of Chemical Hazards
Toxic chemicals – substances that are
fatal to over 50% of test animals at a
given concentration
Hazardous chemicals – harmful to
humans for a number of reasons
Carcinogen – chemicals, radiation, or
viruses that cause/promote growth of
malignancy [especially resulting in
metastasis]
Types of Chemical Hazards, cont
Mutagens – agents like radiation or
chemicals that cause mutations
[change in the DNA of a living organism];
especially in germ cells
Teratogens – chemicals, radiation,
viruses, etc, that cause birth
defects in human embryos
Chemical Hazards and Terrorism
There are many chemical agents
available to terrorists
Some of the most widely known and
feared and would cause the
greatest number of injuries
Chemical Hazards and Terrorism, cont
(1) Blister Agents – (mustard gas); a
few drops can cause severe
injury(attacks eyes, skin,
respiratory and digestive systems);
flammable
In pure state, colorless and
odorless – manufacturers add color
(amber, green) and odor (mustard,
garlic)
Chemical Hazards and Terrorism, cont
(2) Blood Agents – (hydrogen cyanide);
under pressure a liquid, in use a gas;
flammable
Low concentrations-little effect
High concentration toxic and rapid
death (attacks eyes; nervous,
respiratory & digestive systems)
In pure state odor of almonds or
peach blooms
* (+/-) volatile, dissipates quickly
(+) Toxic effects may be delayed
Chemical Hazards and Terrorism, cont
(3) Choking Agents – (chlorine); many are
industrial compounds, are readily
available;
React with H2O to form hypochlorous
acid (HClO) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl ); attacks respiratory system
(coughing, choking, fluid build-up)
Pungent, bleach-like smell, greenishyellow gas
Chemical Hazards and Terrorism, cont
(4) Nerve agents – (Sarin); all are toxic
in small concentrations
Odorless, resembles water or a light
vegetable oil; aerosol dispersion best
Attacks eyes, skin, muscles, respiratory
system, nervous system, digestive
system
* Many dead animals, birds, insects may indicate
an incident *
The Production of Chemical
Hazards
-
Many types of hazard are
associated with the chemical
industry. They can generally be
classed into two categories:
(a) incidents / accidents
(b) waste products
The Production of Chemical
Hazards, cont
- Severity and magnitude of the
hazard is a function of:
(1) type of technological failure
(2) location of the incident
Both will affect the spatial area
impacted, including as it relates to
product life cycles
The Production of Chemical
Hazards, cont
(3) property(ies) of the chemical hazard
--- persistence – resistance to degradation
… hydrolysis (water)
… photolysis (sunlight)
… oxidation (O2; bacteria)
--- solubility – ability to dissolve in water
--- volatility – measure of the tendency of a
compound to become a gas
--- absorption – tendency to bond with
organic and inorganic matter
The Production of Chemical
Hazards, cont
- Because chemical hazard incidents
can occur at any point in the
lifetime of the chemical
[manufacture-to-disposal]
chemical hazards are difficult to
manage
Cutter
“More than any other technological
hazards, chemical hazards require
a thorough understanding of the
scale and context (social,
historical, political, economic,
environmental) of chemical use
because of the source of the
hazard is so randomly distributed”
(p. 87)
Technological change and innovation
is the driving force in the evolution
of world societies from rural
agrarian to urban industrial
--- since the Industrial Revolution,
the pace of innovation has
accelerated – with marked
societal results
Better living through chemistry?
- Rapidness of this technological change
and its complexity has led to a
correlated increase in unintended and
unanticipated consequences
- Until very recently, societies have taken
the position that benefits have
outweighed risks/costs… esp chemical
industry
[somewhat blindly, I think]
Chemical Industry Temporal
Patterns
Viewed most broadly, two spatial
patterns emerge
(1) Prior to 1900 – concentration
in Britain (soda) and Germany
(Dyeing)
(2) After 1900 – diversified and
rapidly growing
Why pattern after 1900?
--- technological advances /
innovations in science
--- internationalization of industry /
multi-nationals
--- mechanization increased efficiency
--- abandonment of batch operations for
continuous-flow operations
Product Life Cycles
Text says that these also played an
important role in industry
transformation / spatial
organization
Can be viewed as “birth-to-death” of
of a product line or an innovation
(p. 89)
Product Life Cycles, cont
Four stages:
(1) research and development –
conception, testing, patenting,
commercialization of a product
or innovation
--- industry concentrated in a
few locations reflecting
factor(s) of production
Product Life Cycles, cont
Four stages, cont:
(2) new product stage – introduction of
new product / innovation
--- rapid market growth
--- market monopolization
--- core area is reinforced and enhanced
as skilled labor emigrates
… may become nodal and foster
business serving employment
Product Life Cycles, cont
Four Stages, cont:
(3) maturity – competitors enter the
product / innovation field
--- innovator firm’s advantage
disappears
--- need to reduce cost and
product is mass produced
--- industry seeks dispersion of
facilities to control cost and
off-set decreased market share
Product Life Cycles, cont
Four stages, cont:
(4) decline and termination
--- product or innovation
declines and eventually
disappears
--- new product of innovation
opportunity
--- often associated with antiquated
facilities / methods
--- firm may continue reduced
marketing of product/innovation
Historical and Spatial Evolution of
the Chemical Industry
International Developments pre-1900
- Text: sulphuric acid was the first commercially
produced chemical (Arabs; 8th C)
- Not until the Industrial Revolution that the
chemical industry go its start
--- early 18th C industry production
dominated by heavy organics,
particularly alkali and soda ash… both in
demand for hard soap and glass production
International Developments pre-1900, cont
- Initially demand far exceeded supply
(vegetable sources)
… as a consequence, the impetus
existed for innovation and the search
for alternative sources
(1) Cutter cites the LeBlanc Method
sulphuric acid and salt to synthesize
alkali
International Developments pre-1900
- LeBlanc Method inherently
dangerous
Interesting: for every ton of synthetic alkali
produced by LeBlanc, 1.4 tons of tank waste
resulted
- By 1863, concern about the effects of
hydrochloric venting that the British
government enacted the UK AlKali Act
International Developments pre-1900
(2) Solvay Method for alkali synthesis
… less tank waste; cheaper in raw
materials; needed less labor
… became preferred method of
production
… more capital intensive; not accepted
in Britain – factor in the demise of
British soda industry
Other sectors of the chemical
industry in Europe were equally
important:
(1) synthetic dyes from coal tar
(Switzerland and Germany)
(2) coal tar gas
(3) explosives industry
-
Explosives industry developed
somewhat differently
--- early industry (esp. if Chinese are
included)
--- not dominated by a single country
or concern
… national defense?
… national pride?
--- initially greater competition
--- eventually saw the evolution of
the Gunpowder Trust , an
oligopoly which cooperated in
carving out market areas and
market shares for its members
--- Factors consolidated producers
into two giants
du Pont (U.S.)
Noble Industries (Scotland)
- Additionally, during the period:
(a) growth of pharmaceutical
sector--- Bayer (1898)
(b) birth of petro-chemical
industry--- fertilizers and
pesticides
The 20th Century and the
American Chemical Industry
Pre-World War I: Rapid Innovations
- U.S. chemical industry in its infancy and
largely dominated by foreign technology
and foreign investment
--- despite 100+ years of independence
we were still a cog in European
mercantile colonialism
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
-
By 1900 U.S. had distinct chemical
production concentrations:
(1) … close to market areas
(Philadelphia/northern New Jersey)
(2) … close to raw materials
(West Virginia/Detroit/Pittsburgh, etc)
(3) … close to power sources
(Niagara Falls)
- Interesting: few chemical producers in
Mid-west or in Gulf Coast States
- Pre-war years were characterized by
rapid innovation in the industry:
… Dow bromides from brine
… Monstanto artificial sweetener
… chemical advancements in plastic and
acrylics
… Kodak emulsions and film-making
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
War and Inventiveness
- Armed conflict spark invention and
innovation… esp. for the chemical
industry
(1) war-time embargo brought
German shortage in nitrogen
(2) development of caustic chlorine
gas, mustard gas and
chloropicrin
(3) synthesis of isopropyl alcohol
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
By the end of WWI, the U.S.
chemical industry had grown
significantly while retaining
decentralized spatial organization
- The fertilizer industry was the
largest single sector, followed by
explosives
-
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
The Interwar Years: Merger Mania and
Diversification
- 1920s and 30s were decades of merger
and acquisition the chemical industry
grew and expanded operations into new
products and markets
- Research takes precedent over
manufacturing
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
The Interwar Years: Merger Mania
and Diversification cont,
- Two important discoveries
occurred in the inner-war period
that permanently altered American
chemical industry
(1) development of polymerization
(2) ability to “crack” molecules
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
The Interwar Years: Merger Mania and
Diversification , cont
- polymerization allowed
customization of molecule chains
- “cracking” molecules results in more
feedstock for processing / later new
products
- whole synthetics industry ultimately
increased need for resources and
raw material
Interesting
Changing World Technologies, a
factory in Carthage, MI, utilizing a
process called thermal
depolymerization has developed a
way to “speed up Mother Nature”
by combining heat and pressure to
convert turkey by-products (beaks,
feathers, bones, etc,) into oil
Interesting, cont
Claim process will work on anything
containing carbon
The only by-products are oil, natural gas,
carbon materials and water
Plant produces 3,000 barrels of biofuel
weekly from 1200 tons of turkey parts
(ConAgra slaughterhouse supplied)
Cost: $80/barrel; smell of burning turkey
parts; threat of increased cost of turkey
guts (E Magazine, Vol XVI, No. 6)
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
Shortages and Substitutions
- Once again, war spawned
shortages and need for
substitutions sparked
technological development
- Much of this expansion was
Federally funded as military or
patriotic need
The 20th Century and the American
Chemical Industry, cont
Shortages and Substitutions, cont
(1) war time expansion
(2) affluent American chemical
market
(3) destruction of the German
petro-chemical industry during and
after the war made the U.S. industry
world leaders after the war
Unheralded Growth and Transition
-
1950-60s brought little technological
change
… easier to think of this time as period of
reorganization / restructuring
-
Movement from small operations
supplying domestic-market need to
publicly trades corporations of
international branch operations and
product diversification
… demanded larger / more capital
intensive operations
Unheralded Growth and Transition, cont
-
? How much of this overseas
restructuring was the result of birth of
U.S. environmental movement (NEPA,
EPA, etc) and subsequent moratorium
on production of select chemical
production in the U.S.
-
--- it is clear that increased government
regulation of pharmaceutical industry did
occur
Unheralded Growth and Transition, cont
-
Example: clioquinol ; thalidomide
(Cantergan) and phocomelia deformity
I would add that this regulation was
complicated by “indirect biological
response… example exposure to:
--- formaldehyde and sickhouse
syndrome
--- sodium fluoroacetate
Unheralded Growth and Transition, cont
-
-
There are also immune system
depressants that “turn off” body natural
defenses
Widespread access to TV makes media
become a leading mass marketing tool
-
-
… chemical sales becomes big business
Economies of scale drove chemical
industry thinking
-
(drive for efficiency and market share)
Unheralded Growth and Transition, cont
-
Also, during this period chemicals as
weapons of war again make appearance
-
-
… now directed against their operating
environment… not them
ex: napalm, dev. In WWII by Dupont and
Standard Oil CO. reappears
Also a growing backlash against the
chemical industry
-
… Rachel Carson, Silent Spring
… common ground movement of anti-war,
consumer protection and environmental,
groups
Safety and Environmental
Awakening
-
With what we developed and what we
knew at the time, is the U.S. chemical
industry “good” or “bad”?
Mowrey and Redmond vs Ames
- After 1970 the chemical industry for first
time comes under concerted, organized
and unified regulatory effort
Safety and Environmental
Awakening, cont
(1) Legislative - Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA)
--- legislative act unifying worker
protection across the U.S.
--- set health and safety standards for
workplaces of 10 or more workers
--- Standards set for noise, chemical
agents, temperature, workplace
safety, worker training and exposure
Safety and Environmental
Awakening, cont
(2) Accidents brought occupational and
environmental exposure –
Firemaster – (1974) fire retardant of
polybrominated biphenyls was mistakenly
delivered to a agricultural feed plant instead of
Nutrimaster , a dairy additive; thousands of
farm animals died, animal deformities
A Michigan feed worker accidentally
mixed a bag of Firemaster into feed.
Before discovered, thousands of cows
(as well as pigs; chickens; sheep) in
southwestern Michigan were affected.
As were humans who ate the meat and
eggs, drank the milk, etc
23,000 cattle; 1.5 million chickens; thousands
of pigs and sheep were slaughtered
[why? simple mistake - same company, similar
names, similar packaging]
Safety and Environmental
Awakening, cont
(2) Cont
kepone – (early 1970s) a pesticide
poisons the James River and chemical
workers
Lathrop, CA (1978) EPA closed a
dibromochloropropane where chemical
workers became sterile and pesticide
residue contaminated soil and
groundwater
Safety and Environmental
Awakening, cont
-
-
These episodes and others fueled
“chemophobia” and brought renewed
calls for tighter legislation
The chemical industry continued growth
and expansion, esp. in petro-chemicals
… helped Texas, Louisiana, New York,
New Jersey, California become
leading chemical states and older
industrial concentrations dispersed
Risk and Hazards Assessment
-
Accidents have always been part of the
chemical industry
… both in reality and perceptually
… history has repeated itself with
multiple accidents in the same
location
… reliable data on accidents is
complicated by a lack of dependable
data on type and circumstance
… further, big accidents get the press
Risk and Hazards Assessment,
cont
-
-
It is easy to conclude that worldwide there is a
general underestimation of accident hazard
Globally there is no comprehensive data base,
though attempts are in place:
SARA Title III (U.S.)
EU Seveso Directive
Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazard
(U.K.)
UN International Programme on Chemical
Safety
UN International Register of Potentially Toxic
Chemicals
Airborne Toxic Releases
International Patterns
As would be expected, there are
conflicting reports on the trend in
chemical accidents (Cutter)
General consensus that greatest
frequency of these accidents are LDCs
[lack industrial infrastructure; development /
safety and response infrastructures
--- this is somewhat balanced: more reported
accidents – lesser severity
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
The U.S. Hazardscape
Cutter opens section with a statement that
examination of the global patterns of “…
accidents reveal little about the contextual
nature of the hazard”
How should we be trained to react to
releases?
(1)
(2)
(3)
Time – limit time of exposure
Distance – distance yourself from the threat uphill
and upwind
Shielding – learn common substance that form a
barrier / protect (Schellhorn)
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
For example:
(1) A doctor in Richland, WA, you see an
inordinate number of cancer patients. A check
shows no reported chemical or radioactive
accidents in your area. Random occurrence?
Probably not.
You are downwind of Hanford Nuclear
Reservation. For 28 yrs (circa 1970+) Hanford
had routinely released radioactive metals and
chemicals into the atmosphere. Because it
was SOP, it is not classed as an accident
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
Or
(2) Tired of problems at Richland, you move east to
Long Island, where you encounter much the same
scenario of cancer clustering. Coincidence? Probably
not.
Long Island is home to Brookhaven National Laboratory,
a center for pure scientific study. One of their
experiments was the Gamma Forest. Here for 15 yrs
(to 1980), 20 hrs a day, high concentrations of
radioactive cobalt was pumped through 100 acres of
forest to examine that the impact might be. Again, SOP,
not reported, not an accident.
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
- Cutter’s figures and studies have
become somewhat dated
- Cutter provides us a literature view of
chemical incidents (p. 103), but
concludes that even the cited studies do
not give an understanding of the “…
increasing hazards of chemical use.”
- For the limited analysis Cutter does
here, she confines herself to airborne
chemical releases…. published accounts
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
Frequency and Distribution
- A total of 339 incidents occurred 1900-1990,
compared to 333 worldwide
--- majority 1970s and 80s
--- Cutter notes that beginning 1950 there is
almost a doubling each succeeding decade
--- point sources dominated the numbers /
transport sources (shipping and pipelines)
showed fewer numbers
--- by state: TX; CA; NJ; LA; NY; PA; IL
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
Chemical Accidents
Year
Total
00-09
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
80-89
U.S. Inter
4
2
14
19
12
18
6
20
15
25
18
27
53
36
118
89
99
97
Acute Releases
U.S. Inter
0
0
1
0
5
3
3
2
6
4
5
8
29
14
50
41
66
38
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
Chemical Accident Sources and Totals
Year Total
00-09
4
10-19 14
20-29 12
30-39
6
40-49 15
50-59 18
60-69 53
70-79 118
80-89 99
Stationary Transport Pipelines Unknown
4
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
11
1
0
0
3
3
0
0
8
5
1
1
12
4
1
1
35
10
3
5
55
43
8
12
53
38
2
6
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
Chemical Type
Cutter summarizes with six categories of accident by
chemical type:
(1) Acute – SARA provided
--- majority of accidents (1970-1990)
were from stationary sources from
this class
(2) Radiation
(3) Ammunition and Explosives
(4) Oil and Natural Gas
(5) Known chemicals not covered previously
(6) Unknown chemical agents
Airborne Toxic Releases, cont
Severity
- Frequently hard to judge because the most
visible indictors – are also the most obvious
- Author observations on fatalities by chemical
type
(1)
(2)
(3)
Munitions explosions resulted in greatest
fatalities
Acute releases resulted in less deaths, but more
injuries than other classes
Radiation class was relative injury-free
[but long-term effects are down played]
Context of Risk
According to Cutter
(1) incidents are increasing nationally and
internationally
(2) toxicity of materials involved is
increasing
It is noteworthy the chemical industry as a
whole (by SIC codes) has one of the best
safety records among manufacturers… but this
is little comfort if you are one of the 50,000
persons evacuated from more than 100
accidents in Cutter’s study period
Context of Risk, cont
Historically, risk has shifted:
From early dependence on heavy inorganics and
small operations where exposure was
occupational
to
Large specialized and diversified operations,
heavily capital dependent and operating on the
basis of economies of scale
* Hazard increased with growth and
diversification*
Context of Risk, cont
-
Some locations have been left more
vulnerable to chemical hazards than
others
vulnerability – “The likelihood that an
individual or group will be exposed
to and adversely affected by a
hazard.”
--- By our social geography, the South
has been particularly vulnerable to
this threat