Reading Chapter Outline 1
 Introduction
 What is Reading?
 Reading in a Second Language
 L2 Reading versus L1 Reading
Key Linguistic and Processing Differences
Key Individual and Experiential Differences
Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional Factors
Reading Chapter Outline 2
 Issues in L2 Reading
Automaticity and Word Recognition
L2 Word Recognition across L1s
Vocabulary
Reading Rate
Language Threshold
Role of Background Knowledge in Reading
Knowledge of Text Structure & Discourse Cues
Meta-cognition and Reading Strategies
Extensive Reading / Impact of Exposure to Print
Further Issues
 Implications of L2 Research for Instruction
Selected NKFUST
Reading-Related Theses
 Sherry Cheng (2004)
Engineers and vocabulary support in reading
 Ivy Chiu (2005)
Engineers and their English textbooks
 Yvonne Liang (2005)
Using dictionaries by engineers
 Alice Wang (2010)
Academic vocabulary of non-English majors
 Rebecca Hung (2002)
Extensive reading
Types of Reading
Purposes for Reading
1. Scanning
2. Skimming
3. Reading for general understanding
4. Reading to learn
5. Reading to integrate information
6. Reading to evaluate critically
7. Reading for pleasure
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 215.
Type of Reading and Speed
1. Scanning
≈ 600 wpm
2. Reading for understanding
≈ 250-300 wpm
3. Reading to learn
≈ 200 wpm
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 216.
L1 Reader Variation
 Training
 Age
 Schooling
 Motivation
 Socio-economic level
 Individual cognition
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 216.
L1 and L2 Reader Differences
1. They do not have the same language
resources as L1 readers
2. They do not share all the social and
cultural assumptions and knowledge bases
3. They do not share the background knowledge
4. They have different reasons for studying L2
5. They are working with 2 languages
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 216.
Major Differences in
L1 vs. L2 Reading
1. Key Linguistic and Processing
Differences
2. Key Individual and Experiential
Differences
3. Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional
Factors
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 217-218.
Ten Issues in L2 Reading 1
1. Automaticity and Word Recognition
2. L2 Word Recognition Differences
across L1s
3. Vocabulary
4. Reading Rate
5. Language Threshold
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.
Ten Issues in L2 Reading 2
6. Role of Background Knowledge in
Reading
7. Knowledge of Text Structure and
Discourse Cues
8. Meta-Cognition and Reading
Strategies
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.
Ten Issues in L2 Reading 3
9. Extensive Reading / Impact of
Exposure to Print
10. Further Issues
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.
Implication 1: Automaticity and
Word Recognition
“Word recognition exercises are probably
useful for both older and younger L2
readers, enhancing fluency and raising
student awareness of the processing
demands of extended independent
reading.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 219.
Implication 2: L2 Word Recognition
Differences across L1s
“Teachers need to be aware that L2 learners
coming from an L1 with a different
orthographic system may be
disadvantaged—particularly at beginning
reading levels—not only because they
have to learn a new orthographic system,
but because they may also need to
develop new processing mechanisms
more suitable to the L2.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 220.
Vocabulary Issues
A. Issues in Vocabulary and L2 Reading
Development
B. How Much L2 Lexis is Needed?
C. The Role of Context in Guessing /
Guessability of Word Meaning in L2
Reading
D. Dictionary Use and L2 Reading
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 220-222.
Issues in Vocabulary and L2
Reading Development
 Number of words needed
 Role of context and guessing
 Role of dictionaries and cognates
 Strategies
 Role of extensive or pleasure reading
 Impact of vocabulary instruction
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 220.
Implication 3: Vocabulary
“In order for L2 learners to read well, they must
have an adequately sized vocabulary and must
be able to recognize the words in that
vocabulary quickly and accurately. Guessing
from context and dictionary use can help in
acquiring this vocabulary over time, but these
skills are not automatic. Rather, they need to be
developed and practiced in order to be used
effectively in conjunction with reading.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 222.
Implication 4: Reading Rate
“Exercises aimed at improving reading
rate seem to help L2 learners, in
particular those who have already
developed their word recognition skills.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.
Two Hypotheses about
L2 Reading
1. Language Threshold Hypothesis
2. Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.
Language Threshold Hypothesis
“…some minimal threshold of proficiency in the L2
must be attained in order for the reader's first
language reading skills to transfer to reading in
the second language.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.
Linguistic Interdependence
Hypothesis
“…reading or learning to read is accomplished
only once, and that once learners have matured
in their ability to read in the first language, the
awareness of the reading process transfers to
the second language and does not need to be
relearned. Thus, reading performance in the
second language was claimed to share a
common underlying proficiency with reading
ability in the first language (Cummins, 1979).”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.
Implication 5:
Language Threshold
“It seems that a certain level of L2
proficiency is necessary before L1 reading
strategies and skills can be utilized
effectively in L2 reading. Therefore, L2
reading development must take place in a
learning context that also promotes overall
L2 language proficiency, at least for lowerlevel students.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 224.
Implication 6: Role of Background
Knowledge in Reading
“Appropriate background knowledge about
the topic being read helps learners
understand the reading better. It is an
important element in reading
comprehension, but only one of many.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 225.
Implication 7: Knowledge of Text
Structure and Discourse Cues
“L2 readers can benefit from an
understanding of the text structures which
organize L2 texts, and can profit from
making those structures explicit. Training
in awareness of text structure, and
specifically how it organizes information in
texts, will improve students[’] reading
comprehension over time.
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 226.
Implication 8: Meta-Cognition
and Reading Strategies
“Better learners actively control their reading
and strategy use. Fortunately, it seems
that these meta-cognitive skills can be
taught, with lower proficiency students
gaining the most. Therefore, reading
instruction should include some training in
these ‘management’ skills.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 227.
Implication 9:
Extensive Reading
“Extensive reading provides many
benefits for fluency, comprehension
and vocabulary learning. It should be
a component of almost any reading
programme.”
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 228.
POSSIBLE THESIS AREAS
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Interplay between higher and lower level processes
Promoting automaticity in word recognition
Motivation in L2 reading
Reading and Writing relations
Social context factors influencing L2 reading
Assessment practices in L2 reading
Increasing role of fluency in reading instruction
Increasing reading speed
Neurolinguistics and reading
Reading with new multimedia and computer technologies
Teacher training for reading instruction
Increasing similarities of L2 reading processes across
language as students reach advance levels