Conflict, Resolution and Justice in
International Relations Theory
Michael Buckley
Global Majority
and
The City University of New York, Lehman College
Conflict, Resolution and Justice
in International Relations Theory

Overview
Two IR Theories, One Normative
Theory
 Why Theory?
 Theory and Practice

Conflict, Resolution and Justice
There are long periods in the history of any society
during which certain basic questions lead to deep and
sharp conflict and it seems difficult if not impossible
to find any reasoned common ground…
A key task of political theory is to focus on deeply
disputed questions and to see whether an underlying
basis of agreement can be found… It is realistically
utopian when it extends what are normally thought of
as the limits of practical political possibility
John Rawls
Three Key Concepts
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= Power
Realism
= Ideals and laws
Utopianism
= Constraints that help
Realistic Utopia
define the legitimate
use of power
Theories of Int’l Relations

Realist
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Liberalism
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Classical and Neo-realists
Utopians and Neo-liberalism
New Normative Approaches
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Capabilities theory
The Context of IR Theory
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Peace Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
Concert of Europe -- Congress of Aixla Chapelle (1815)
League of Nations -- Paris Settlement
(1919)
United Nations Charter (1948)
The State of Nature
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Absent overarching authority sufficient to
make effective laws/obligations
Without effective obligations, states have
no incentive to follow principles
States may have incentive not to follow,
lest they be taken advantage
Does not necessarily mean there are no
principles of international justice
Does imply moral obligations must be
reasonable from first person perspective
Section I

Realism
Realism
Classical Realism
 Neo-realism
 Juridical Realism

The Peloponnesian War
The real though unavowed cause I
believe to have been the growth of
the Athenian Power, which terrified
the Lacedaemonians and forced
them into war; but the reasons
publicly alleged on either side were…
Thucydides
The Lacedaemonian Diplomat
Focus on states that could constitute
effective threats
 Will NOT interpret actions in terms of
what is said, but rather on the
premise that they are seeking to
rationally increase their power
 Develop policies protecting one’s own
power position and essential interest

Classical Realism
States are the key units of action
 States seek power, either as an end
in itself or as a means to other ends
 States behave in ways that are, by
and large, rational
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Conflict
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Power
Military, economic
and social
resources?
Ability to influence
other’s behavior?
The perceived
essential interest of
each state
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Rationality
Action based on the
pursuit of selfinterest measured
in terms of power
maximization.
A cost/benefit
analysis of
alternative policies
in order to realize
preferences (power)
Resolution
Outcome of Rational States Pursuing
Interests is:
 Modus Vivendi
 Balance of Power: Equilibrium of
power relations established or
disturbed through alliances or arms
racing

Pareto Frontier
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If all units were given to Ms. Smith, she
would perceive let us say 700 units of
utility. Mr. Novak would get nothing and
his utility would be 0. If all the goods
were given to Mr. Novak, he may
perceive 500 units of utility and Ms.
Smith would get 0. Pareto frontier is
the black curve connecting these two
points. It depicts the maximum
possible welfare of this pair of people.
For example point A representing 200
units of welfare for Mr. Novak and 300
units of welfare of Ms. Smith is
inefficient, because some changes in
the allocation of resources, technology
and/or distribution of consumer goods
can improve the welfare of one or both
of them.
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Rational Choice Play: Von
Nuemann’s Games
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Gen. Kenney knew Japan would send convoy of
ships either north or south to New Guinea.
Each rout takes 3 days, giving the Allies a 3 day
window to attack. But weather could interfere.
Weather forecasts predicted: North rout would be
rainy one day, allowing 2 days of bombing. The
southern rout would be clear, allowing three days.
If Kenney sends planes south, and convoy goes
north, he loses one of two days of bombing time.
If he sends them north, and the convoy goes south,
he loses one of three days of bombing time.
What should he do?
Kenney’s Payoff Matrix
Japanese
Allies
North
South
North
2
2
South
1
3
Classical vs Neo-Realism
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Classical
States, Power,
Rationality
Outcome: Balance
of Power
Unit Analysis
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Neo-Realism
States, Power,
Rationality
Outcome: Balance
of Power
Systems Analysis
Unit vs Systemic Analysis
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Unit Analysis
Explains int’l
outcomes by
reference to the
internal structures of
individual units
(states)
Ex. Democratic
countries do not go
to war with one
another
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Systemic Analysis
Explains int’l
outcomes by
reference to forces
that operate at the
systems level of int’l
relations
Ex. Int’l wars
decrease in a bipolar
vs. multipolar world
Unit or Systemic?
The sacrifices of Americans have not always been
recognized or appreciated, yet they have been
worthwhile. Because we and our allies were
steadfast, Germany and Japan are democratic
nations that no longer threaten the world … Every
nation has learned, or should have learned, an
important lesson: Freedom is worth fighting for,
dying for, and standing for -- and the advance of
freedom leads to peace.
George W. Bush
Systems Analysis
Ordering principle: How is the
structure ordered? Hierarchical,
Anarchical?
 Character of the units: What are the
key functions of the units?
 Distribution of capabilities across units:
Is stability/peace best achieved in a
multipolar, bipolar or unipolar world

Outcomes
Self-help system: Those who cannot
help themselves will not prosper
 Balance of power: Helping oneself
means increasing one’s capability
(power) relative others
 Relative Gains: States seek relative
rather than absolute gains

Relative Gains
When faced with the possibility of cooperating for
mutual gain, states that feel insecure must ask how
the gain will be divided. They are compelled to ask
not “Will both of us gain?” but “Who will gain more?”
If an expected gain is to be divided, say, in the ratio
of two to one, one state may use its
disproportionate gain to implement a policy to
damage or destroy the other. Even the prospect of
large absolute gains for both parties does not elicit
their cooperation so long as each fears how the
other will use its increased capabilities
Kenneth Waltz
Juridical Realism
Giorgio Agamben: State of Exception
 Relation between power and the law
 Does the executive branch stand
above the law? Or is it subject to it?
 Executive determines “state of
emergency” and suspension of law
 “Power” trumps “law”
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Realism Summarized
Conflict: Natural condition of an
anarchic order where units view
their interests (power) in opposition
to other units
 Resolution: Equilibrium established
through a balance of power
 Justice: Ideology of the stronger
(might makes right)
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Section II
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Liberalism
Utopianism (liberalism)
Believed the stabilizing force of int’l
relations rested on transnational
organizations (League of Nations) and
international law
 Believed these organizations and law
were grounded on moral concepts
 When properly established, global
order would achieve a harmony of
interests
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Harmony of Interests
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The pursuit of individual interests is at the
same time the pursuit of the communal
interest.
Laissez Faire Economics serves as model
In international relations, the key interest
is an interest in peace
Global Society simply needs to create the
proper context in which these interest can
be realized (not unlike the way capitalism
creates the conditions supportive of market
relations)
Critique of Utopianism
The state has no right to let its
moral disapprobation … get in the
way of successful political action,
itself inspired by the moral principle
of national survival.
Hans Morgenthau
What about?
Should the US trade with China
despite the latter’s human rights
record?
 Should countries have pulled their
investments from apartheid ridden
South Africa?
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Utopians vs Neo-Liberalism
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Peace established
through transnational
institutions and laws
Institutions and laws are
grounded on morality
Once properly
established, global
society can realize a
harmony of interests
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Cooperation made
possible by
international regimes
Institutions and Laws
are established
through State interest
(hegemonic interest)
Once established
states can seek
absolute gains rather
than relative gains
Neo-liberal Analysis
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Focus on a world political system -- states,
transnational institutions and int’l regime
International regimes have a significant
impact on world politics
What are the major features of world politics
when interdependence is extensive?
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Is Interdependence a new phenomena?
Sensitivity vs Vulnerability interdependence
How and why do international regimes
change?
Constraints on State Action

The US imposes duties on Japanese
steel imports. Japan brings the case
to the World Trade Organization,
which rules in favor of Japan. Does
the US have to lift its import duty?
Sensitivity vs Vulnerability
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Exports of Goods and Services
(% of GDP)
13
14
19
20
26
Imports of Goods and Services
(% of GDP)
13
13
20
20
25
World
Source: World Development Indicators database, World Bank
Interdependence
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Transnational institutions help
facilitate cooperation by reducing
uncertainty
Establish conditions of trust
 Creates symmetric access to
information
 Reduces transaction costs of legitimate
actions
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Outcomes
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Constrain State Actions
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Governments often comply with rules that
conflict with their immediate self-interests
in order to preserve their participation in
beneficial regimes
Facilitate Cooperation
Establish conditions of trust
 Creates symmetric access to information
 Reduces transaction costs of legitimate
actions
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Neo-Liberalism Summarized
Conflict: Natural condition of world
political system where states are
among the key units
 Resolution: Interdependence helps
facilitate cooperation among states
 Justice: The pursuit of self-interest
within an interdependent world creates
the possibility of absolute gains
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Neo-liberalism vs Neo-realism
The nature and consequences of
anarchy
 The possibility of cooperation
 Relative vs Absolute gains
 Priority of State goals
 Intentions vs capabilities
 The role of transnational institutions
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Section III
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Normative Approaches
Plato’s Republic
Justice is nothing more than the
advantage of the stronger
Thrasymachus
Why ask these questions?
1.5 bil. people live below int’l
poverty live
 Widening gap between global rich
and global poor
 Environmental degradation
 War
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Explanatory vs. Normative
Theory
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Explanatory
Describes relations
 Predicts outcomes
 Presents framework explaining outcomes
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Normative
Prescriptive
 Cannot predict
 Presents a framework that justifies what
outcomes ought to be achieved
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The State of Nature





Absent overarching authority sufficient to
make effective laws/obligations
Without effective laws/obligations, states
have no incentive to follow principles
States may have incentive not to follow,
lest they be taken advantage
Does not necessarily mean there are no
principles of international justice
Does imply moral obligations must be
reasonable from first person perspective
International Principles
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Principle of
Sovereign Equality
Principle of Nonintervention
Duty to Honor
Human Rights
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Just War Principles
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Just cause
Last resort
Legitimate Authority
Proportionality
Probability of success
Aim of peace
Discrimination
(civilian vs
combatant)
Theories of Global Justice
Contract Theory
 Communitarianism
 Utilitarianism
 Cosmopolitanism
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Capabilities Approach:
Capabilities Approach
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Account of minimum core social
entitlements—theory of rights
The focus is on human capacities to
function in a particular way and not the
realization of that functioning
Capacities are grounded in an idea of
human dignity and flourishing
Gives content to the idea of “equality” by
focusing on what particular goods are
capable of doing/contributing
An injustice is understood as capabilitydeprivation
Central Human Capabilities
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Life
Health
Bodily Integrity
Sense, Imagination,
Thought
Emotions
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Practical Reason
Affiliation
Other Species
Play
Control over one’s
environment
Capabilities as Criteria
UN Human Development Report
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Human Dev. Index
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Life Expectancy
Literacy
Wealth per capita
Health Expenditure
Physicians/100k pop
Children under weight
Inequality Measure
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Gini index
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Tech. usage
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Unemployment
Energy consumption
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Cell phone
Internet
Carbon Dioxide Em.
Prison Population
Gender equality
The Human Development Concept
Human Dev. is a development paradigm that is
about much more than the rise or fall of national
incomes. It is about creating an environment in
which people can develop their full potential and
lead productive, creative lives in accord with their
needs and interests... Development is thus about
expanding the choices people have to lead lives
that they value. And it is thus about much more
than economic growth, which is only a means —if a
very important one —of enlarging people’s choices
UNDP
Capabilities and Rights
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Life
Health
Bodily Integrity
Imagination, Thought
Emotions
Practical Reason
Affiliation
Other Species
Play
Control over envn’t
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Right to life
Right to food/med
Freedom of movement
Right to education
Right marry/reproduce
Freedom of religion
Right to assemble
Right to rest and leisure
Right to vote/own property
Justifying Capabilities
The focus is on capacities each
person has, to varying degrees
 The full function of at least some of
these capacities can lead to a fulfilling
life—sense of dignity and self-worth
 Respective of plurality insofar as it
avoids advocating the satisfaction of
functions
 Practical in that they serve as criteria

Capabilities Approach
Conflict: Conflicting interests exist,
but some interests are more
fundamental then others
 Resolution: More fundamental
interest takes priority
 Justice: The protection of
fundamental capabilities is a
minimal criterion for justice
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Interests Revisited
How are the benefits (wealth) and
burdens (pollution) of economic
development to be distributed?
 Do property rights (GM food) secure
basic interests or violate them?
 What are nations’ responsibilities
toward refugees?
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Realistic Utopia: Conflict
and Resolution
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People have conflicting interest
But conflicting interests do not create
insurmountable barriers to cooperation
understanding interests (dialogue)
acting reasonable with respect to key
interests (capabilities approach)
we put ourselves in a position to resolve
conflict in a manner acceptable to all
parties.