Popular Politics in Georgian
Britain
What is Popular Politics?
• Two senses: intervention of people into public business or
political debates (not always welcomed); theory that
ordinary people have a right to participate in public affairs
directly or via representation
• Political ‘radicalism’ is an anachronistic term for the period
• Support for more democratic basis of politics is episodic,
activists are divided, politicians are opportunistic.
• The 19th century definition of radical is one who holds the
most advanced views of political reform along democratic
lines but this does not really apply in the 18th century.
• Many of those arguing for electoral reform in the early
eighteenth century want to restrict the franchise to create
a purer, less corrupt electorate.
18th Century radicalism
• Historians increasingly recognise a lively ‘out of doors’ political culture.eg
Colley, Krey, Langford, Rogers and Speck . Wilson has included an imperial
dimension to this.
• Radical tradition focused on a vigorous resistance to ruling cartels; a sense
of liberty and freedom among the English. Any attempts to extend
standing armies, erect military barracks, centralise the police forces or tax
collection met with fierce resistance (legacy of Commonwealth).
• Advocacy was less about progress towards full democracy and the
creation of new rights and more about the defence of rights that, it was
perceived, had always been held by the English people and were
enshrined in documents such as the Magna Carta (1215) and Bill of Rights
(1689)
• Popular politics is commercialised in this period: press and pamphlet
literature, production of ‘political’ artefacts that were badges of allegiance
Bonnie Prince
Charlie Scent
Bottle
Lecture structure
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•
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Role of Whigs & Tories
Jacobites
Excise Crisis
Wilkes
Whigs & Tories
• Age of Whig Oligarchy c. 1720-1760: did Whigs and Tories exist as
separate entities in politics?
• ‘the Tories were pre-eminently the landed gentry, unconnected
with the Court - a social group rather than a political party’.
(Brooke)
• Traditional view stresses division of politics based on Court and
Country loyalties (which were fluid) rather than political parties.
• Period before 1760 sees a metamorphosis of the Whigs from the
party of ‘the people’ to the party of established wealth; Whigs
dominate government from 1715 (aftermath of Jacobite revolt)
• The Tories swing from the party of established wealth to the party
of the people—or at least people angry at the Government. So is
popular politics mainly associated with Toryism or country politics
in this period? Can popular politics be ‘reactionary’?
Jacobite Chronology
1689
1692
1708
1715
1744
1745
1746
1747
1753
James II lands at Kinsale in Ireland; siege of Londonderry; Dundee musters
Jacobites at Lochaber and launches Highland War;
Glencoe massacre;
Old Pretender arrives at Dunkirk and sail for Scotland but turn back
Bolingbroke flees to France; 4 leading Tories impeached; pro-Jacobite rioting
in Midlands and North; Mar raises rebellion at Braemar; captures Perth;
uprisings in Northumberland, Moffat, Rothbury, Kelso, Lancaster, Preston;
Old Pretender lands at Peterhead
British discover plot of French invasion, mass arrests
French defeat Cumberland at Fontenoy; Young Pretender lands at
Eriskay; capture Edinburgh; enters England but turn back at Derby;
French invasion cancelled; defeated at Culloden by Cumberland; Charles
returns to France
Jacobite demonstrations at Lichfield races
‘Elibank’ plot betrayed; Cameron executed - last man to die for Jacobite
cause
Culloden Today
The Battle of Culloden was fought
on this moor 16th April, 1746.
The graves of the Gallant
Highlanders who fought for
Scotland and Prince Charlie are
marked by the names of their
clans.
Interpretations of Jacobitism
• Romantic tradition: Jacobitism was a genuine
political movement; E. Cruickshanks argued in
Political Untouchables that the Tory party
were at heart Jacobites. Monod that
Jacobitism infiltrated all levels of society.
• Reactionary Fringe: the Revolution settlement
& power of state kept Jacobites at bay and
ultimately defeated them. Jacobites were out
of touch and unpopular.
• Many Whig historians ignore Jacobitism or
dismiss it briefly.
Excise Crisis
• Walpole wanted to reduce the burden of the land
tax and shift government revenues to other
sources.
• Excise scheme of 1733 involved converting the
customs duties on tobacco and wine into inland
duties—shift tax burden on to consumers.
• Walpole had already introduced excise duties on
tea, chocolate, and coffee and in 1732 had
revived the salt duty
Walpole
(1676-1745)
(John
Wootton, c.
1730)
Opposition
• Tory country gentlemen held the view that it was their duty
to shield their social inferiors. Price of this paternalism was
the land tax—Walpole wanted to reduce it down to 1s in £1
prior to election of 1734.
• Others opposed to all aspects of Walpole’s policies
• Excise duties involved giving extensive powers of search to
revenue officers (expanding the power of the state), and a
wide jurisdiction to magistrates and excise commissioners.
• Englishman’s right to privacy on his own property and also
to trial by jury seen to be in jeopardy
• Orchestrated campaign in the press which exploited such
fears.
From Eighteenth Century Collections
Online.
On a search for titles containing the
word ‘Excise’ between 1733 and 1735
there were 71 results.
"A panegyrick on Cardinal
Wolsey", an anonymous satire
on Sir Robert Walpole.
Commonplace book, Latin and
English prose and poetry in
several hands, c.1719-42 or
earlier, the main verse hand
probably 1730s. (Brotherton
Library, Leeds)
Aftermath
• George II stood by Walpole and as a result, he
recovered although serious damage was caused
• General election of 1734 was especially contentious.
• 136 contested elections [out of 558 seats in the House
of Commons], more than in any other general election
before 1832 except 1710 and 1722.
• In open constituencies government was heavily
defeated
• MPs who supported the excise scheme were severely
punished in the large constituencies
• Walpole retained a substantial majority of about eighty
but lost oligarchic control
A turning point in popular politics?
• Excise crisis marked beginning of an organised opposition that
looked to some element of the excluded public for support.
• Jacobitism as the main vocabulary of popular opposition to central
government began to be displaced
• National dimension of agitation against the excise
• Constitutionalist discourse (peoples’ ancient rights and liberties at
risk) used by merchants opposed to the excise for self-interested
reasons but demonstrated the possibility of an extra-parliamentary
constitutionalist opposition
• John Wilkes spread-headed the first mass movement to project the
ideology of popular constitutionalism into a political programme
(people have a right to participate in government)
John Wilkes (1725-97)
• Of middle class extraction - his father was a
wealthy distiller in Clerkenwell.
• Educated as a gentleman including a spell at
University abroad.
• Married a Buckinghamshire heiress
• Wilkes entered parliament in 1757.
• Wilkes was a publicist of immense skill and he
cultivated the press by associating himself with
the defence of liberty
• Wilkite movement was far more than the
character of Wilkes himself. Indeed Wilkes told
George III that he was not a Wilkite. He provided
a rallying point for popular discontent
John Wilkes (1725-1797), by Johan Zoffany, c.
1779-82 [shown with his daughter Mary WIlkes].
Wilkes Affair
• Wilkes a campaigned against Lord Bute (John Stuart, PM
1762-3) in his paper the North Briton.
• Issue number 45 (April 1763) contained a trenchant attack
on Bute (‘45 associated with failed Jacobite rising)
• To secure evidence against Wilkes a series of arrests and
searches were undertaken under the legitimacy of general
warrants issued directly by secretaries of state.
• The courts found general warrants to be illegal. Wilkes was
arrested whilst he was an MP and this was judged a breach
of parliamentary privilege. Thus Wilkes was expelled from
the House.
• Wilkes fled to exile on the continent. He returned in 1768
and began his campaign to be elected to parliament.
• Once elected as MP for Middx he surrendered to the
authorities and was sentenced to 22 months in the King’s
bench prison for his authorship of the article in the North
Briton.
Wilkes Elections
• In 1767-8 the state of the electoral system attracted
renewed attention. The corporation of Oxford was
discovered in an attempt to sell its representation in
order to pay off its debts.
• Wilkes began his election campaign for the City of
London. In the London election he was unsuccessful
but stood for Middlesex and swept the poll.
• Ejected from his seat at Middx but as often as he was
expelled the people re-elected him
• In December, Serjeant John Glynn, Wilkes' counsel in
his libel trial succeeded in a byelection in Middlesex
• Wilkes stood as an alderman in Farringdon and polled
1300 out of 1500 votes.
• Support for Wilkes had now spread beyond London
and there were 55,000 signatures on petitions in
support of his cause.
Wilkites and the Law
• Wilkites were strongly committed to reform: liberty of
press; more frequent elections; removal of placemen
from the Commons and a more fair and equal
representation.
• Moved from particular grievances to demands for a
structural reform of the political system
• Wilkites used the courts to generate drama from the
courtroom.
• View of the law dominated by four main themes:
accountability; the elimination of partial justice; right
to trial by jury; and governing by public consent rather
than by force.
• Wilkites used cases for their own political ends: eg the
printers cases of 1771. These centred on the right of
newspapers to publish parliamentary debates.
Portrayals of Wilkes
• Popular plebeian politics is seen in Wilkite images
as form of disorder.
• Politics with the people is portrayed as
contentious and divisive and disorderly
• Popular prints also condemned social emulation.
Eg in tailor riding to Brentford. His unsteadiness
hints at a forthcoming fall and the rules for bad
horsemen is displayed in his pocket. Exceeding
one’s station in politics or horsemanship is foolish
and hazardous.
• Echoed by the blacksmith who neglects his work
for ill-informed and idle gossip.
Wilkes’ Supporters
• Main support came from London and the Home
counties
• Sporadic support for him from all over Britain.
• ‘essentially a product of the metropolis’.
• Middling tradesmen supported him wholeheartedly eg
the coopers, hatters, jewellers of the London livery
companies and freemen.
• Supported by the London mob who chalked Wilkes and
Liberty on the streets of the city; smashed the windows
of Lord Bute. The great majority of these were
labourers, servants, journeymen and petty traders.
Conclusions
• Were the eighteenth century reform and agitation movements
really radical?
• Reformers’ ideal was a broad, propertied oligarchy in which the
lower orders should accept their place.
• No wish to curb the powers of the monarchy or reform the House
of Lords.
• Emphasised lower taxes and cheaper more economical government
but not poor relief or reform of economic injustices. Private
property rights were still sacrosanct.
• Radical opinion from Wilkes onwards endorsed the principle of the
sovereignty of the people and the derivation of political power from
the populace.
• Yet often innately conservative movements
• The 'mob' played a peripheral role in the disquiet of the period and
often took to the streets for reasons other than political ones.