Van Tran
March 25th, 2012
Period 5
AP Biology Chapter 40 Worksheet
1. Short-term physiological responses, or acclimatization, are temporary changes during an animal’s
lifetime, while long-term adaptation is a process of change in a population brought about by natural
selection acting over many generations. Acclimatization deals with one generation of animals or a single
animal, while adaptation deals with evolution and generations of many animals. An example of
acclimatization is when an elk or other mammal moves from sea level to a much higher elevation, and
changes such as increased blood flow in the lungs and increased production of red blood cells that carry
oxygen occur over several days to facilitate activity at lower oxygen concentrations.
2. Bioenergetics is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an organism or the study of how
energy flows through organisms.
3. Anatomy is the biological form of an animal, while physiology is the biological function of parts of the
animal. Anatomy therefore is related to form and physiology to function. Functional anatomy is the
study of anatomy in its relation to function.
4. A tissue is an integrated group of cells with a common function, structure, or both. Different types of
tissues are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
5.
a. Epithelial tissue: covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body.
i. Cuboidal: These are made of dice-shaped cells specialized for secretion. They make up the
epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands, including the thyroid gland and salivary glands.
ii. Columnar: These are made of column-shaped cells. They line the intestines and secrete
digestive juices and absorb nutrients.
iii. Sqamous: These are made of thin, leaky cells and function in the exchange of material by
diffusion. This lines blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs, where diffusion of nutrient and gases
occur.
b. Connective tissue: functions in binding and supporting other tissues in the body. It consists of a sparse
population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.
i. Adipose: This is loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout
its matrix. Adipose tissue pads and insulates the body and stores fuel as fat molecules. Each adipose cell
has a fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses that fat as fuel.
ii. Cartilage: This has a bunch of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a
protein-carbohydrate complex called chondroitin sulfate. Cells called chondrocytes secrete the collagen
and chondroitin sulfate that make cartilage strong yet flexible. Cartilage makes up disks that act as
cushions between vertebrae.
iii. Bone: This makes up the skeleton of most vertebrates and is a mineralized connective tissue.
Osteoblasts, bone-forming cells, deposit a matrix of collagen. Calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
combine into a hard mineral in the matrix. This combination of mineral and collagen makes bone hard
without being brittle.
c. Muscle: tissue responsible for nearly all types of body movement. It consists of cells with filaments
containing proteins actin and myosin that work together to contract the muscle.
i. Skeletal (striated): It is attached to bones by tendons and is responsible for voluntary
movements. It consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibers.
ii. Cardiac: It forms the contractile wall of the heart. It is striated and has contractile properties,
allowing it to contract the heart. Its fibers branch and interconnect via intercalated disks, which relay
signals from cell to cell and help synchronize heartbeats.
iii. Visceral (smooth): It lacks striations and is found in the wall of the digestive tract, urinary
bladder, arteries, and other internal organs. The cells are spindle-shaped and are controlled by different
kinds of nerves than skeletal muscles. They are responsible for involuntary body activities like the
churning of the stomach or constriction of arteries.
d. Nervous: senses stimuli and transmits signals in the form of nerve impulses from one part of the
animal to another. It contains neurons or nerve cells that have extensions for receiving and sending
signals. A concentration of nervous tissue forms the brain. It also includes glial cells, which help nourish,
insulate, and replenish the neurons.
6. In all but the simplest animals, different tissues are further organized into functional units called
organs. Groups of organs that work together provide an additional level of organization and
coordination and make up an organ system. For example, the skin is an organ of the integumentary
system, which protects against infection and helps regulate body temperature.
7. Physical laws that govern strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange limit the range of animal
forms. It can limit the shape of an animal. For example, water’s high viscosity as compared to air limits
the possible shapes for animals that are fast swimmers. Any bump on the animal’s body surface causes
drag and slows them down much more than it would on a terrestrial animal moving in air. Therefore,
the physical laws of water limits fast swimmers to streamline body shapes. Also, there is a limit on size
due to the needed skeletal strength and muscle size that would be required for larger animals.
Eventually, the skeleton is not strong enough to support such a large animal and there would not be
enough muscle to facilitate movement of such a large animal.
8. Animals need to exchange materials with their environment, so their size and shape affects their
interactions with the environment. Nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged adequately
for the animal to survive. A higher surface area to volume ratio makes it easier for materials to be
exchanged. Therefore, the larger an animal is, the harder it may be for materials to be exchanged.
However, the shape of an animal can include many folds that help increase the surface to area ratio,
which compensates for the animal’s large size.
9. Homeostasis is the steady-state physiological condition of the body, or internal balance. Examples are
the steady body temperature of a river otter and the stable concentration of solutes in a freshwater
bass. The three functional components of a homeostatic control system are the monitor, coordinating
centre, and regulator. Monitors are special sensors located throughout the body to detect stimuli.
Monitors send signals to the coordinating centre that relays them to a regulator which forms responses.
10. Positive feedback triggers mechanisms that amplify rather than diminish the stimulus. They cause
the stimulus to become stronger rather than weaker and do not usually contribute to homeostasis.
Negative feedback is the opposite, triggering responses that reduce or dampen the stimulus. This causes
the stimulus to be weaker rather than stronger. Homeostasis relies largely on negative feedback.
11. Most autotrophs use light energy to build energy-rich organic molecules and then use them for fuel
Heterotrophs must obtain their chemical energy from food that contains organic molecules synthesized
by other organism. Animals use chemical energy harvested from the food they eat to fuel metabolism
and activity. Food is digested by enzymatic hydrolysis and nutrients are absorbed by body cells. Most
energy-containing molecules are used to make ATP, which powers cellular work and enables cells,
organs, and organ systems to perform the functions that keep the animal alive. It is also used for growth
and repair and synthesis of storage material as well as production of gametes. The production and use
of it generates heat, which is given off to the animal’s surroundings.
12. Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. It is the sum of all the
energy-requiring biochemical reactions over a given time interval. It can be determined by monitoring
an animal’s rate of heat loss or amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced by cellular
respiration. To calculate it over long periods of time, researchers record the rate of food consumption,
the energy content of the food, and the chemical energy lost in waste products.
13. Birds and mammals are mainly endothermic. They are warmed mostly by heat generated by
metabolism. A few nonflying reptiles, some fishes, and many insect species are also mainly endothermic.
Amphibians, lizards, snakes, turtles, many fishes, and most invertebrates are mainly ectothermic,
meaning that they gain most of their heat from external sources.
14. Though larger animals overall require a higher metabolic rate, the metabolic rate per cell is actually
lower for larger animals than for smaller animals. The energy required to maintain each gram of body
weight (metabolic rate per gram) is inversely related to body size. Each gram of a small animal requires
more energy than each gram of a large animal.
15. Basal metabolic rate is the minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm that is at rest, has
an empty stomach, and is not experiencing stress. Standard metabolic rate is the same except that it is
for ectotherms rather than endotherms. The major factors that influence energy requirements are size
and activity. The larger the size of an animal, the higher the overall metabolic rate but the lower the
metabolic rate per gram. The higher the activity of an animal, the higher its metabolic rate will be.
16. Endothermy is a high-energy strategy that permits intense, long-duration activity over a wide range
of environmental temperatures. Endotherms use energy for thermoregulation while ectotherms do not,
causing them to have a lower metabolic rate. Ectothermy requires less energy than endothermy, and
ectotherms cannot sustain intense activity over long periods of time.
Vocabulary:
Anatomy: The structure of an organism and its study
Physiology: The processes and functions of an organism and their study.
Tissues: An integrated group of cells with a common function, structure, or both.
Epithelial tissue: Sheets of tightly packed cells that line organs and body cavities as well as external
surfaces.
Basement membrane: The floor of an epithelial membrane on which the basal cells rest.
Simple epithelium: Epithelium that is a single layer of cells.
Stratified epithelium: Epithelium that is multiple tiers of cells and is more than one layer.
Cuboidal: With dice-shaped cells specialized for secretion. It makes ups the epithelium of kidney tubules
and many glands, including the thyroid gland and salivary glands.
Columnar: These are made of column-shaped cells. They line the intestines and secrete digestive juices
and absorb nutrients.
Sqamous: These are made of thin, leaky cells and function in the exchange of material by diffusion. This
lines blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs, where diffusion of nutrient and gases occur.
Glandular epithelia: Epithelium made up of cells that produce secretions.
Mucous membrane: Smooth moist epithelium that lines the digestive tract and air tubes leading to the
lungs.
Collagenous fibers: Tough fibers of the extracellular matrix. They are made of collagen that are
nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise.
Elastic fibers: Long threads made of the protein elastin. Elastic fibers provide a rubbery quality to the
extracellular matrix that complements the nonelastic strength of collagenous fibers.
Reticular fibers: Fibers that are very thin and branched. Composed of collagen and continuous with
collagenous fibers, they form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues.
Loose connective tissues: The most widespread connective tissue in the vertebrate body, it is made of
collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers and binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in
place.
Fibroblast: A type of cell in loose connective tissue that secretes the protein ingredients of the
extracellular fibers.
Macrophages: A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying
microbes and in acquired immunity as an antigen-presenting cell.
Adipose tissue: A connective tissue that insulates the body and serves as a fuel reserve; contains fatstoring cells called adipose cells.
Fibrous connective tissue: It is dense with collagenous fibers that form parallel bundles, which maximize
nonelastic strength. It is found in tendons and ligaments.
Tendon: A fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.
Ligament: A type of fibrous connective tissue that joins bones together at joints.
Cartilage: A type of flexible connective tissue with an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in
chondroitin sulfate.
Chondrocytes: Cartilage cells that secrete the collagen and chondroitin sulfate that make cartilage a
strong yet flexible support material.
Bone: A type of connective tissue, consisting of living cells held in a rigid matrix of collagen fibers
embedded in calcium salts.
Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells that deposit a matrix of collagen.
Osteons: Repeating units that make up hard mammalian bone. Each osteon has concentric layers of
mineralized matrix, which are deposited around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves.
Blood: A connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells,
and cell fragments called platelets are suspended.
Nervous tissue: Tissue made up of neurons and supportive cells.
Neuron: A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that
allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its cell membrane.
Muscle tissue: Tissue consisting of long muscle cells that are capable of contracting when stimulated by
nerve impulses.
Skeletal muscle: Striated muscle generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.
Striated muscle: Muscle in which the regular arrangement of filaments creates a pattern of light and
dark bands.
Cardiac muscle: A type of muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart. Its cells are joined by
intercalated disks that relay each heartbeat.
Smooth muscle: A type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the
uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cell.
Organ: A specialized center of body function composed of several different types of tissues.
Mesentary: A membrane that suspends many of the organs of vertebrates inside fluid-filled body
cavities.
Thoracic carvity: The body cavity in mammals that houses the lungs and heart. It is surrounded in part
by ribs and separated from the lower abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.
Abdominal cavity: The body cavity in mammals that primarily houses parts of the digestive, excretory,
and reproductive systems. It is separated from the more cranial thoracic cavity by the diaphragm.
Organ systems: A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions.
Interstitial fluid: The internal environment of vertebrates, consisting of the fluid filling the spaces
between cells.
Homeostasis: The steady-state physiological condition of the body.
Negative feedback: A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable
triggers a response that counteracts the initial change.
Positive feedback: A physiological control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers
mechanisms that amplify the change.
Metabolic rate: The total amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.
Endothermic: Referring to organisms with bodies that are warmed by heat generated by metabolism.
This heat is usually used to maintain a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the
external environment.
Ectothermic: Referring to organisms for which external sources provide most of the heat for
temperature regulation.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, and nonstressed endotherm at a
comfortable temperature.
Standard metabolic rate (SMR): The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, and nonstressed ectotherm at a
particular temperature.