Chapter 11
Individual Differences and
Measurement of Energy Capacities
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Specificity
• High V O2 max in one event doesn’t ensure a high V O2
max in another event.
• High Aerobic  High Anaerobic Power
• High Anaerobic  High Aerobic Power
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Generality
• High aerobic power usually indicates
above-average power in related activities.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Overview of Energy-Transfer
Capacity During Exercise
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Anaerobic Energy Transfer: Evaluation of
Immediate Energy Systems
• Power tests: used to measure brief maximal
capacity
– Tests generally < 6 seconds
• Power is calculated as
Power = force × distance
time
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Power Is Expressed in Watts
1 watt = 0.73756 ft-lbs · s-1
1 watt = 0.01433 kCal · min-1
1 watt = 0.0013 hp
1 watt = 6.12 kg · m · min-1
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Stair Sprinting Power Tests
• Time to sprint up 6 steps, 3 at a time, is
determined
Power = kg body wt × distance in meters
time in seconds
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Jumping-Power Tests
• Sergeant jump test
– Low correlation with scores and actual
ATP-PCr energy transfer
• Standing broad jump
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Interrelationships Among Power
Performance Tests
• Power is highly task specific.
• The usefulness of a test increases when it
mimics sport performance.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Evaluation of Immediate Energy
System: Physiologic Tests
• Physiologic biochemical measures evaluate
– Size of intramuscular ATP-PCr pool
– Depletion rate of ATP and PCr in all-out shortduration exercise
– O2 deficit calculated from initial phase of
exercise O2 consumption curve
– Alactic portion of recovery O2 consumption
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Evaluation of the Short-Term
Energy System
• After a few seconds of work, glycolysis
generates increasingly more energy for
ATP resynthesis.
• As the rate of glycolysis increases, lactate
accumulates.
• Blood lactate levels provide the most
common indicator of glycolytic activity.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Anaerobic Power Performance and
Capacity Tests
• Performances that substantially activate
short-term energy systems require
maximum exercise for up to 3 minutes.
– Influences
• Age
• Gender
• Body size
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• Skill
• Motivation
McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Tests that Most Closely
Mimic the Sport’s Performance
Are the Best!
• Some good, commonly used tests include
– Katch test
– Wingate test
• Both give measures of peak power and
anaerobic capacity.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Copyright © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Copyright © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Gender Differences
• Males generally score better than females.
• Difference in gender occur even in children and
adolescents despite corrections for lean body
mass.
• Evidence suggests a biologic difference in
anaerobic exercise between genders.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Maximally Accumulated O2 Deficit
• Determination of MAOD provides another
indirect measure of anaerobic capacity.
• MAOD is determined using the linear exercise
intensity_O2 consumption relationship.
• Data is collected from several submaximal
treadmill trials.
• Correlates positively with other tests
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Biologic Indicators for
Anaerobic Power
• Blood lactate levels
• Glycogen depletion
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Individual Differences in Anaerobic
Energy-Transfer Capacity
• Factors contributing to differences
include
– Previous training
– Capacity to buffer acid metabolites
– Motivation
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Effects of Training
• Anaerobically trained individuals have
– Greater lactate-generating capabilities
– Greater depletion of muscle glycogen
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Buffering of Acid Metabolites
• Training fails to increase alkaline reserve.
• Ingestion of sodium bicarbonate may
increase buffering capacity and improve
performance.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Motivation
• Individuals willing to tolerate pain or
exhibit mental toughness are able to
generate more lactate and experience
greater glycogen depletion.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Aerobic Energy:
The Long-Term Energy System
• Maximal oxygen capacity plays a large role in
determining endurance performance.
• Attaining a high V O2 max requires integration of
pulmonary, CV, and neuromuscular function.
• V O2 max is a fundamental measure of physiologic
functional capacity for exercise.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Assessment of Maximal O2
Consumption
• Considerable research has been done to
develop standardized tests to assess aerobic
power and provide norms related to
–
–
–
–
Age
Gender
Body size
Training state
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Criteria for Maximal O2
Consumption
• A leveling off in O2 consumption despite an increase
in exercise intensity generally assures
O2max has been reached.
V
• Controversy regarding precise criteria remains.
• V O2peak = highest value of oxygen consumption
measured during graded test exercise
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Maximal O2 Consumption Tests
• V O2max is determined using exercise that activate the
body’s large muscle groups
– Treadmill
– Bench stepping
– Stationary cycling
• Test usually consists of graded exercise with much
prodding to reach V O2max or V O2peak.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Test Comparisons
• Two popular protocols are available.
– Continuous
– Discontinuous
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Factors that Affect Max O2
Consumption
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mode of exercise
Heredity
State of training
Gender
Body size and composition
Age
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Mode of Exercise
•
•
•
•
•
Influences muscle mass activated
Treadmill usually > cycling
Bench stepping similar to treadmill scores
Arm cranking only ~ 70% treadmill values
Specificity and skill are very influential in
many modes.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Heredity
• Most physical fitness characteristics demonstrate
high heritability.
• Research shows that up to 93% of difference in
O
V
2max is due to heredity.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
State of Training
• 5 − 20% variation in scores seen as
fitness levels of individuals changed at
time of testing
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Gender
• Women achieve scores on average 15 −
30% lower than men.
• Differences may be due to
1. Muscle mass
2. Hemoglobin concentration
• Considerable variability exists; many
women score higher than the average man.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Body Size and Composition
• Body size creates large differences.
• Common practice: Express V O2 max relative to body
mass
• Controversy exists about various methods of
adjusting scores to normalcy for gender differences
• Adjustments made by each factor gives different
results.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Age
• VO2max declines after age 25 by ~ 1% per year.
• Age also influences V O2max values in boys and girls.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Aerobic Capacity Prediction Tests
• Submaximal tests are used to
– Decrease cost
– Decrease time
– Decrease risk
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
A Word of Caution about Predictions
• All prediction tests contain an error
known as the standard error of estimate
(SEE).
• SEE is expressed in measurement units
used for prediction or as a percentage.
• Sometimes the SEE can be large.
• At times, the SEE is small, and the test is
more useful.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Prediction Tests Commonly Used
• Walking tests
• Endurance runs
• Step tests
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Predictions Based on Heart Rate
• Use exercise or postexercise heart rate and a
standardized exercise regimen
• Apply linear relationship between heart rate
and O2 consumption
• Data are gathered at several workloads.
• A line or “best fit” is extended through
predicted maximum heart rate.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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Assumptions Required for HR
Predictions
• Linearity of HR – O2 consumption
through all exercise intensities
• Similar maximum HR for all subjects
• Constant economy and mechanical
efficiency throughout exercise
• Limited daily variations in HR (usually 5
beats/min-1)
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
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The Step Test
• Practical test that uses HR during
recovery
• Prediction equations applied to test results
estimateV O2max with reasonable accuracy.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Predictions from Nonexercise Data
• Data used
– Gender
– BMI
– Physical activity rating (PAR)
• 0 − 10 over 6 months
– Perceived functional ability (PFA)
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition
Predictions from Nonexercise Data
• Regression equations are then used to
calculate scores.
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McArdle, Katch, and Katch: Exercise Physiology: Energy,
Nutrition, and Human Performance, Sixth Edition