Evidence-Based Strategies for Creating Learner-Centered
Virtual Classrooms in Psychology Graduate Courses
Nancy S. Bostain, Ph.D.
Nick McAuliffe, M.S.
Arnie Witchel, DBA
Objectives
•
LC Beliefs Inventory
•
Review LC Principles & Factors
– Metacognitive & Cognitive Factors
– Motivation & Affective Factors
– Developmental & Social Factors
– Individual Differences Factors
•
Examples of LC Practices in the Virtual Environment
•
Student Comments/Reactions to LC course
•
Applying LC Principles across Disciplines
•
Skill Building Activity
Learner-Centered (LC) Defined
a focus on individual learners (their experiences,
perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and
needs) with a focus on LEARNING (the best available
knowledge about learning and how it occurs and about teaching
practices that are the most effective in promoting the highest
level of motivation, learning, and achievement for all learners)
(McCombs, 2000, p. 1)
Metacognitive & Cognitive Factors
– Nature of learning: The learning of complex subject matter is
most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing
meaning from information and experience.
– Goals of learning: The successful learner, over time and with
support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.
– Construction of knowledge: The successful learner can link
new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Metacognitive & Cognitive Factors (con’t)
– Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a
variety of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.
– Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting
and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
– Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental
factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices.
Motivation & Affective Factors
–
Motivational and emotional influences on learning. Learning is influenced by
the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn is influenced by the individual’s
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
–
Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and
natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing for personal choice and control.
–
Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills
requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation
to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Developmental & Social Factors
– Developmental influence on learning. As individuals develop,
they encounter different opportunities and experience different
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when
differential development within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account
– Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with
others.
Individual Differences Factors
–
Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies,
approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
–
Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account
–
Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging
standards and assessing the learner and learning progress—including diagnostic,
process, and outcome assessment—are integral parts of the learning process.
(summary of the complete APA Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (APA, 1997) cited in McCombs and Miller
(2007, 2008). Reprinted with permission.
Creating a Learner-Centered Classroom
• Setting The Stage & Early Participation
– Clarify faculty expectations
– Encourage student responsibility & autonomy
(Blumberg & Pontiggia, 2010; Lewis & Abdul-Hamid, 2006
– Balance the power, manage the dance
– Model the expectations through dialogue
Cognitive and Metacognitive
• Bloom’s taxonomy-critical thinking
• Critically reflective questioning
• Primary sources, paraphrasing
• Reflect on assumptions, values, experiences, etc. to
explore alternative perspectives (Pierce & Kalkman, 2003)
• View past through new theoretical lenses
Cognitive and Metacognitive (con’t)
• Asking
SO WHAT????
– Why is this important, how does it relate to the topic, what are
the implications to the topic?
– Why should the reader care????
– Answering the So what?? begins the analysis, synthesis &
evaluation processes
Motivational & Affective
• Introduction and personal goals
• Facilitator visibility & encouragement
• Verbally support diversity of students & experiences
• Encourages emotional & cognitive connections
Motivational & Affective (con’t)
• Provide choices in discussion & assignments
• Model curiosity & exploration, ask effective
questions, encourage perspective shifts, challenge
assumptions
• Above leads to course norm of students
respectfully challenging each other
• Celebrate & support working through the
murkiness and confusion
Developmental and Social
•
•
•
•
•
Respond to multiple students
Ask questions to all
Encourage others to join in
Student facilitated summary wrap-ups
Encourage those that get it to assist
those who don’t
(Felder & Brent, 1996).
Individual Differences
• Use all resources available: multimedia, articles,
presentations, phone calls, etc.
• Embrace ALL forms of diversity, encourage unique
perspectives
• Provide formative & summative feedback
throughout
• Seek feedback from students-encourages trust &
commitment
Student Impression Objectives
• Describe purpose of analyzing course end feedback
• Discuss the nature of feedback and the coding of student
comments
• Present the general findings of student perceptions of LC
methodologies
• Apply LC model to analysis of survey results
Student End-of-Course Feedback
Purpose
• What can be learned about the student
learning process in a LC classroom based on
student feedback?
• How do graduate students perceive and
adapt to LC principles from a LC facilitator?
What We Collected
•
•
•
•
3 years
79 students
288 remarks
15 Coded themes
Coded Data
How We Collected Data
• Qualitatively Coded using NVivo®
• Matched APA LC Principles to
Feedback themes
APA Themes
Nature of Learning Process
Intrinsic Motivation
Goals of Learning Process
Effects of Motivation on Effort
Construction of Knowledge
Developmental Influences
Strategic Thinking
Social Influences
Thinking about Thinking
Individual Differences
Context of Learning
Learning and Diversity
Motivational / Emotional Influences Standards / Assessment
American Psychological Association. (1997). Learner-centered psychological principles: A framework for school reform and
redesign. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
Feedback Themes
Personalized Learning
Group Interaction
Engaging Student
Instructor Involvement
Feedback
Facilitator Accessibility
Enhance Learning Process
Comparison to Other Faculty
Related Learning to Student
Overwhelming
Challenge Student
Misunderstanding
Reflection
Expectations
Student Adjustment
Personalized Learning
Engaging Student
•Identifying facilitator action that
influenced learning process
•Student was engaged
because of behavior or action
of the facilitator (Berdrow & Evers,
(Thomson, 2010).
2011).
•“Your instruction DID facilitate
•“Your facilitation of the course,
learning and the structure was prolearning”
in my opinion, was as good as it
could have been.”
•“Your feedback in the course room
•“Asking thought provoking
questions in response to our
posts –demonstrates you are not
only monitoring the course room,
but also actually reading our
discussions. ”
was thought provoking as well and I
could see that you wanted us to dig
a little deeper (at times).”
•.
Feedback
Enhance Learning Process
•Receiving constructive
instruction / affirming or
questioning thought processes
•Realization (by student)
methods used have broadened
knowledge and/or replaced
assumptions (Harpe & Phipps, 2008)
(Bossche, Gijselaers, Segers, & Kirschner, 2006;
Cornelius-White, 2007).
•“You stressed the importance of
diversity of experience, backgrounds,
even when we missed a point that
would help increase the information the specializations, and the role they
play in helping us all learn and grow.”
person has already given, you do not
•“You always have positive feedback
make us feel like we did not complete
•“I especially liked the feedback you
the assignment but rather by answering
provided as it helped challenge my
your question we are enhancing the
thinking. “
discussion”
Related Learning to Student
Challenging the Student
Extrapolation of knowledge,
acquired during instruction,
and applying the knowledge to
other areas of expertise (Sherman,
Learners who describe the
material, discussions, and work
as challenging often do so with
positive comments and convey
appreciation for being challenged
Crum, Beaty, & Myran, 2010).
(Thomson, 2010).
“I learned as much as my brain
could handle about leadership and
scholarly writing, and, more
importantly, new ways about
thinking about the concept of
leadership. Thank you for that.”
“I appreciated the most was
the challenging and critical
thinking that you inspired with
each comment and post.”
Reflection
Student Adjustment
Students who considered the
implications of the class on
their professional career as
well as reflecting on the
learning as a milepost for
learning that has occurred
Admission of personal challenges
that may have impeded the
learning process and corrective
measures the student addressed
(Devonshire & Henderson, 2012).
“You provide a balance of
encouragement and constructive
criticism in your responses, and this
allowed me to stay engaged and
motivated to learn more.”
(Bossche et al., 2006).
“I must say that I was very skeptical about
this course before I took it, because I said to
myself “This has to be boring. This course
really enlightened me on the aspects of
leadership. I learned not only what it takes
to become a leader; but what it takes to
remain one.
I really enjoyed the interactions amongst
classmates. I did feel like the coursework
was challenging, yet fair. ”
Group Interaction
Instructor Involvement
Admission of positive influence
of others on the learning
process (Berdrow & Evers, 2011).
Students acknowledge the
specific attributes of the facilitator
that increased motivation and
facilitated learning (Killian, Dye, &
Wayman, 2013).
“To come full circle, you created a
cyclical learning process whereby
we were able to learn from each
other
“…the comments and responses
from you and my classmates gave
me a wealth of new information as it
relates to civilian leadership”.
“I agree with other posts about your
level of involvement and your
willingness to give feedback.”
“Thank you for your time and
guidance throughout the quarter.”
Facilitator Accessibility
Nature and degree of
availability the facilitator
displayed during the learning
session(s) (Bossche et al., 2006).
Comparison to Other
Faculty
Theme within feedback
addressing the desire of students
to compare the current facilitator
to past facilitators.
“Best of all, I’ve never seen an
instructor so present in the
classroom. You were all over it.”
“Out of all my courses, you have
been the most present I have seen
an instructor be in the course
room.”
“Compared to most instructors that I
have had in my previous classes,
you are by far very involved and
active in the course.”
Overwhelming
Challenges each learner
identified during the learning
process as well as emotional
burden of acquiring new
knowledge
“Sometimes when you are adding
multiple (additional) posts and
resources for us to read, and asking
us to comment on them, it can get
overwhelming.”
What We Got…
Reactions
• Students perceived a difference with LC
learning as compared to traditional lecturebased learning
• Many learners acknowledged the difficulty
of learning yet favored the reward over the
process
• Learners enjoyed the challenge
Learning
• Learners acknowledged the
acquisition of new skills and were
excited to apply new skills
• Learners acknowledged that they
learned in new ways throughout the
process
Transfer of Learning
• Learners affirmed new knowledge had
been gained and they had been
challenged
• Learners described their own
challenges to learning and using the
learning in their lives
ROI-Results
• Students referred to needs being met
(or not met) through the process
• Learners described their own
motivation and self-actualization
Remaining Challenges of LC Learning
• Multiple approaches to learning overwhelm some
learners (6 out of 288 comments)
– Some feel they have to take every path
• Some learners may not acquire knowledge without
specific instructions
– “Tell me what to do”
Applying LC Principles Objectives
•
•
•
•
Similarities to Inquiry Based Learning
Review Guidelines
Application to Action Learning
Application to Managerial Science and
Statistics
Applying Principles Across Disciplines
• Perception: Easier to accomplish in some
disciplines than others.
• Similarities to Inquiry Based Learning (IBL)
Applying Principles Across Disciplines
• Three guidelines:
– Similarities and differences across disciplines
– Challenges and opportunities in each field
– Increased understanding enhancing facilitation
and inclusion
Action Learning
• Aligns well with learning centered principles
(O’Neal & Marsic, 2007).
• Learning by doing.
• Ranges from problem solving to learning
from work experience.
Action Learning (con’t)
• Facilitator allows students to identify problem and
goals of learning.
• Students engage in constructive knowledge and
creative thinking
• Individual and collective research and reflection
Management Science
• Subset of decision sciences, diverse fields
• Critique: Reliance on empiricism
• Focus change: Rigid modeling to inquiry
based learning.
Management Science (con’t)
• Inquiry into real problems that models may
help to solve
• Collection and application of data
• Goals for learning, recognizing individual
differences.
Management Science (con’t)
• Less focus on math, more on models
• Facilitator with students: Latest theories,
individual differences in learning
• Interpretation of models, types of data to be
collected
Management Science (con’t)
• Movement from “the math answer” or the “right
answer” to application of model
• Advantages for facilitator:
– More time on instructional design, collaboration
and modeling learning behavior
– More time on formative and summative
assessments, feedback.
Management Science (con’t)
• Advantages for student
– Student: More time on task inquiry and
collaborative learning effort
– Solving real world problem, model assessment,
data needed, and how to collect data
Statistics
• Focus is problem solving, decision making
• Move from static environment to discovery
• Focus on goal, knowledge construction and
context (APA, 1997).
Statistics (con’t)
• Instructional design begins with
construction of knowledge, not
abstractions
• Questions lead to discovery, to data to
resolve the problem to arrive at a
solution
Statistics (con’t)
• Progresses beyond a single mathematical solution
• Understanding of data classifications
• Models applied to data set
• Aids in intrinsic motivation
SO WHAT????
• Learner–centered principles in action
exercise
• Create small groups of either:
– Educators
– Professional development/trainers
– Consultant/Coaches
– ??? Any other group
Questions to Answer
• Based on what you’ve heard so far, what can you
use now, to enhance your LC approach with
clients?
• What additional skills and techniques can you
suggest to create a more LC approach with your
clients?
• What is YOUR---so what?????
References
•
American Psychological Association. (1997, November). Learner-centered psychological principles:
Guideline for school reform and design. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
•
Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., Williams, T.A., Camm, J.D., & Martin, K. (2010). Quantitative methods
for business. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.
•
Berdrow, I., & Evers, F. T. (2011). Bases of competence: A framework for facilitating reflective learnercentered educational environments. Journal of Management Education, 35(3), 406–427.
doi:10.1177/1052562909358976
•
Bossche, P. V. den, Gijselaers, W. H., Segers, M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2006). Social and cognitive
factors driving teamwork in collaborative learning environments team learning beliefs and behaviors.
Small Group Research, 37(5), 490–521. doi:10.1177/1046496406292938
•
Bloomberg, P., & Pontiggia, L. (2010). Benchmarking the degree of implementation of learner –
centered approaches. Innovative Higher Education, 36, 189 – 202. doi:10.1007/s1075 –010–9168-2
•
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: A metaanalysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143. doi:10.3102/003465430298563
•
Devonshire, E., & Henderson, S. E. (2012). Reducing the distance: Providing challenging and engaging
online postgraduate education in pain management. British Journal of Pain, 6(2), 70–78.
doi:10.1177/2049463712448582
References
•
Felder, R. M., & Brent, R. (1996). Navigating the bumpy road to student-centered instruction. College
Teaching. 44(2), 4.
•
Harpe, S. E., & Phipps, L. B. (2008). Evaluating student perceptions of a learner-centered drug
literature evaluation course. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 72(6), 135.
•
Killian, J. N., Dye, K. G., & Wayman, J. B. (2013). Music student teachers pre–student teaching
concerns and post–student teaching perceptions over a 5-year period. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 61(1), 63–79. doi:10.1177/0022429412474314
•
Levy, B.L.M,, Thomas, E.E., Drago, K., & Rex, L.A. (2013). Examining studies of inquiry based learning
in three fields of education: Sparking generative conversation. Journal of Teacher Education, 64(5),
387-408. doi: 10.1177/0022487113496430
•
Lewis, C. C., & Abdul-Hamid, H. (2006). Implementing effective online teaching practices: Voices of
exemplary faculty. Innovative higher education, 31(2), doi:10. 1007/s 10755 – 006 – 9010 –z.
•
Mingers, J. (2006). A critique of statistical modelling in management science from a critical realist
perspective: Its role within multimethodology. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 57(2),
202-219.
•
McCombs, B. L. (2000). Assessing the role of educational technology in the teaching and
process: A learner-centered perspective. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html
learning
References
•
McCombs, B. L., & Miller, L. (2007). Learner-centered classroom practices and
assessments: Maximizing student motivation, learning, and achievement. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin Press.
•
McCombs, B. L., & Miller, L. (2008). The school leader’s guide to learner-centered education: From
complexity to simplicity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
•
O’Neal, J., & Marsick, V.J. (2007). Understanding action learning. New York: Amacom.
•
Pierce, J. W. & Kalkman, D. L. (2003). Applying learner-centered principles in teacher education.
Theory into Practice, 42 (2), 127-132. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4202_6
•
Ravens, R.W. (1982). The origins and growth of action learning. London: Chartwell-Bratt.
•
Ravid, R. (1994). Practical statistics for educators. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
•
Sherman, W. H., Crum, K. S., Beaty, D. M., & Myran, S. (2010). Perspectives on distance technology
in leadership education: Transfer, meaning, and change. Journal of Research on Leadership
Education, 5(13), 589–610. doi:10.1177/194277511000501301
•
Thomson, D. L. (2010). Beyond the classroom walls: Teachers’ and students’ perspectives on how
online learning can meet the needs of gifted students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 21(4), 662–
712. doi:10.1177/1932202X1002100405
•
Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
CONTACT INFO:
Nancy S. Bostain; docbostain@hotmail.com; 303.838.8775
Nick McAuliffe; mcauliffe.n@gmail.com, 307.509.0005
Arnie Witchel; adwitchel@gmail.com; 407.248.0871