Management of
Instructional Supervision:
Principals as Instructional Leaders
Learning Outcomes
• Students are able to:
• Conceptualize the meaning of instructional
supervision
• Relate the school of thoughts about learning
to instructional supervision
• Explain the suitability of supervisory
behaviors of supervisors according to context
• Apply the options of supervision according to
contingency factors
Your Thoughts!
• The process by which most teachers are supervised and
evaluated is inefficient, ineffective, and a poor use of principal’s
time.
• What is the evidence for a good teaching?
• The theory of action behind supervision and evaluation is that
they will improve teachers’ effectiveness and therefore boost
student achievement.
• A well-regarded veteran teacher hasn’t been evaluated in five
years and rarely sees the principal in his classroom. She takes
this as a compliment – her teaching must be “okay”. And yet
she feels lonely and isolated with her students and wishes the
principal would pay an occasional visit and tell her what he
thinks.
Kim Marshall 2005
Three Phases of School Reform Movement
• The publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983
• Began in 1990s – Focus on the role of
challenging academic standards (A blueprint
for recruiting, preparing, and supporting
excellent teachers in American schools)
• 1996 – Publication of “What matters most:
Teaching for American Future”
What Matters Most: Teaching for
American’s Future
• Three simple premises:
• What teachers know and can do is the most
important influence on what students learn
• Recruiting, preparing, and retaining (teacher
retention) good teachers is the central
strategy for improving our schools
• School reform cannot succeed unless it
focuses on creating the conditions in which
teachers can teach and teach well.
Laurine CarsonA Mother in New Jersey
• When my daughter starts school, I’m looking for a
teacher who is spontaneous, someone who can
follow a curriculum and yet meet the emotional and
social needs of children as well. I hope for someone
who has a vivid imagination and knows how to use
ordinary objects to teach valuable lessons. … If my
daughter is slow, I want a teacher who is
immediately looking into that, and if she is surpassing
the class, I want her to get what she needs and
progress as far as she can. … I want a teacher who
uses different methods and different ways of
reaching students – who can think in innovative ways
and challenge the children while teaching them
academically
Provisions under Act 550
Education Act 1996
• 117 Duties of Chief Inspector
• The Chief Inspector shall:
(a) be responsible, in collaboration with such
authorities as the Minister may appoint, for ensuring
that an adequate standard of teaching is developed
and maintained in educational institutions
• (b) – (d)
• 121 General powers of Inspectors of Schools
• (b) require the chairman of the board of governors or a
governor or any other person responsible for the management
of the educational institution or a teacher or employee or
person found in the educational institution:
• (i) to produce for his inspection any time-table, syllabus or
record pertaining to subjects taught or to be taught or any
book, material, document or article relating to or which in the
opinion of the Inspector may relate to the teaching carried on in
the educational or the management of the educational
institution; and
• (ii)
Rujukan Surat Pekeliling
• Ikhtisas Bil. 3/1987 Penyeliaan pengajaran
pembelajaran
• Ikhtisas Bil. 3/1999 Penyediaan rekod
pengajaran dan pembelajaran
• Ikhtisas Bil 12/2002 Pelaksanaan pengajaran
Pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran
Sains dan Matematik dalam Bahasa Inggeris
di SRJK© mulai 2003
• Ikhtisas Bil 4/1986 Panitia mata pelajaran
• Surat Pekeliling Ikhtisas Bil 16/2000
Salah laku memasukkan unsur politik dalam
soalan peperiksaan/ujian di sekolah dan
perbuatan menghasut/meracuni fikiran
pelajar membenci kerajaan
Leadership Roles of School Principal
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Managerial
Political
Instructional
Institutional
Human resource
Symbolic
(What is the implication for administration of
a school here?)
Current References
• Zapeda, J. Sally. (2012). Instructional supervision:
Applying tools and concepts (3rd Ed.). New York: Eye
on Education
• Glickman, C. D., Gordon, S.P., & Ross-Gordon, J. M.
(2013). Supervision and instructional leadership: A
developmental approach (9th Ed.). U.K.: Pearson.
• Marzano, R. J., Frontier, T., & Livingston, D. (2011).
Effective supervision: Supporting the art and science
of teaching. Alexandria VA: ASCD.
Definitions of Instructional Supervision
• Supervision is assistance for the improvement of
instruction
(Glickman, Gordon and Ross-Gordon)
• Supervision should be viewed as a function of
process rather than a role or position
Therefore, educators from the top to the bottom of
its organizational chart can engage in the function
and process of supervision
• A process of facilitating the professional growth of a teacher, primarily
by giving the teacher feedback about classroom interactions and
helping the teacher make use of that feedback in order to make
teaching more effective … a process designed to improve instruction
by conferring with the teacher on lesson planning, observing the
lesson, analyzing the observational data, and giving the teacher
feedback about the observation (Glatthorn, 1997 in Azali Mahbar)
• As supervisors gradually increase teacher choice and control over
instructional improvement, teachers will become more reflective and
committed to improvement, and a sense of ethos or a cause beyond
oneself will emerge
Approaches To Instructional Supervision
• Theories of practices ultimately concerned
with actions taken to improve a present
situation and in our case the beneficiaries
would be teachers and students.
(Sergiovanni)
• Scientific method
Used to identify facts and descriptions of
instructions by focusing on the observed
behaviours of teachers and students
• Artistic method
To gain a broader view of instruction by
focusing on the expertise character of what
teachers and students are doing in the
educational setting
• Clinical supervision
It provides a structure for interpreting the
data derived from the scientific and artistic
methods
Time to Rethink Teacher Supervision
and Evaluation
• Are lessons observed/evaluated representative of the
teacher’s instruction/is it atypical!
• Micro-evaluations of individual lessons don’t carry
much weight
• Isolated lessons do not provide a complete picture of
instruction
• Accountability issue – Will supervision/evaluation
assure student learning?
• Supervision/evaluation reinforce teacher
isolation/Does it promote collaboration?
• Validity of evaluation instruments (The use of
rubrics)
• Judgmental vs. non-judgmental feedback
• Principals are busy and often violate the
contractual requirements
• Who own the evaluation/supervision process?
(Is it an activity done to teachers?)
• How many supervisors/evaluators are aware
of the differentiated systems?
Conceptualizing Instructional Supervision
• Instructional role of school principal focuses
on coordinating, controlling, supervising, and
developing curriculum and instruction in
school
• Instructional leaders were conceived to be
strong and directive leaders
• Instructional leaders are hands-on and goal
oriented leaders (focusing on improving
student academic outcomes)
• Do our school leaders possess the time and
capacity to perform all these?
• The alternative to it could be through
shared/distributive instructional leadership
Hallinger Instructional Leader Model
(Principal Instructional Management
Rating Scale PIMRS
• Used by more than 130 doctoral students around the
world in their studies
• The most widely used measure of principal leadership
over the last 30 years
• Consists of three dimensions and 10 functions
• The survey instrument has 10 subscales and 50
items.
• Dr. Philip Hallinger
E-Mail: pjh@leadingwear.com
hallinger@gmail.com
• Dimensions:
Defining the school’s mission
Managing the instructional program
Promoting a positive learning climate
• Defining the school’s mission
Framing the school’s goals
Communicating the school’s goals
• Managing the instructional program
Supervising and evaluating instruction
Coordinating the curriculum
Monitoring student progress
• Promoting a positive learning climate
Protecting instructional time
Promoting professional development
Maintaining high visibility
Providing incentives for teachers
Providing incentives for learning
Marzano Teacher Evaluation Model
• Four Domains:
1. Classrooms strategies and behaviors
2. Preparing and planning
3. Reflecting on teaching
4. Collegiality and professionalism
SuperVision and Instructional Leadership: A
Developmental Approach (9th Edition) 2013
(Glickman, Gordon, Ross-Gordon)
• Reflective questions at the beginning and end of each
chapter.
• A discussion of new instructional leadership roles for
supervisors and teachers. (Chapter 1)
• Coverage of cultures within cultures. (Chapter 2)
• An entirely new chapter, “The Dynamic School”.
(Chapter 3)
• The latest research on expert teachers. (Chapter 5)
• Explanation of 360° feedback. (Chapter 6)
Cont….
• Role plays to practice directive control, directive
informational, collaborative, and nondirective
behavior. (Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10)
• Descriptions of technology for enhanced classroom
observation. (Chapter 13)
• Discussion of collaborative walkthroughs. (Chapter
13)
• Role plays on group roles. (Chapter 16)
• Suggestions for involving collaborative groups in
school improvement. (Chapter 16)
Cont …
• Exploration of dialogue as an alternative form of
group process. (Chapter 16)
• Presentation of a new tool for evaluating professional
development sessions. (Chapter 17)
• Overview of developing curriculum units through
“Understanding by Design”. (Chapter 18)
• Review of characteristics of successful action
research. (Chapter 19)
Purposes of Supervision
• Quality control
• Professional development
Helping teachers to grow and develop
Improving basic teaching skills
• Teacher motivation
(Often overlooked)
Schools of Thought about
Learning and Teaching
• Current models of instruction derive largely from the
behaviorist, cognitive, and humanistic psychological perspective
(Wittrock (1987)
• The cognitive School of Thought
• Meaningful learning
Reception learning: Learning that takes place when we present
our students with new information that is carefully organized
and structured (read on advance organizer)
Discovery learning: Learning that takes place when students are
provided with experiences and experiments from which they
derive their own knowledge and meaning (read on
constructivism)
• Problem solving: It requires that a situation exists
wherein there is a goal/goals to be achieved and that
learners be asked to consider how they would attain
the goal(s)
• The Humanistic School of Thought
• Beliefs of the humanistic school:
Having good feelings about oneself (self-respect,
self-worth, self-efficacy)
Having good feelings about others
The school should fit the child rather than the child
should fit the school
Classrooms must help kids/youth satisfy essential
human needs as suggested by Maslow, 1968)
• Humanistic approaches to teaching:
Teacher Effectiveness Training (TET), Inviting School
Success, and value clarification, moral and character
education, and multiethnic education.
• The Behavioral School of Thought
Behaviorists are interested in finding out how
external /environmental stimuli cause behavior and
how behavior can be changed by modifying what
happens in a learner’s environment
The Supervisory Bahavior
Continuum
• From maximum teacher responsibility/minimum supervisory
responsibility to minimum teacher responsibility/maximum
supervisor responsibility
• Listening
• Clarifying
• Encouraging
• Reflecting
• Presenting
• Problem solving
• Negotiating
• Directing
• Standardizing
• reinforcing
Relationship between Philosophy,
control, and supervisory
• Directive
Essentialism
Supervisory high, teacher low
• Collaborative
Experimentalism
Supervisory equal, teacher equal
• Nondirective
Existentialism
Supervisory low, teacher high
Options for Supervision
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
A differentiated system of supervision
Clinical supervision
Collegial supervision
Self-directed supervision
Informal supervision
Clinical Supervision
• The rationale and practice is designed to improve the
teachers’ classroom performance. It takes its
principal data from the events of the classroom. The
analysis of these data and the relationships between
teacher and supervisor form the basis of the
program, procedures, and strategies designed to
improve the students’ learning by improving teachers’
classroom behavior (Cogan, 1973)
• The supervisor job is to help the teacher select goals
to be improved, teachers issues to be illuminated,
and to understand better her/his practice
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The cycles of clinical supervision
Preobservation conference
Observation of teaching
Analysis and strategy
Postobservation conference
Postobservation analysis
• Preobservation conference
The framework for observation is developed
The supervisor needs to become familiar with the class and how
the teacher views his/her class
The teacher provides an overview of his/her intents, outcome
likely possible to come, and problems to be encountered
The teacher assuming major responsibility for setting the
supervisory agenda
The teacher should have as complete as possible a picture of
events to occur as the the process of supervision unfolds
•
• Observation of teaching
It is the actual and systematic observation of teaching
What the teacher actually says and does?
How students react?
What actually occurs during a specific teaching episode?
The supervisor should remain as unobtrusive as possible
Notes taken should be descriptive (free from inferences), the
supervisor should leave the classroom as unobtrusive as
possible
• Analysis and strategy
The analysis of teaching and building of a supervisory strategy
(the first phase)
The supervisor converts the raw data/information collected into
manageable, meaningful, and sensible form
• The second phase is the building of a strategy for working with
the teacher
• The postobservation conference
The supervisor uses the specific information gathered to help
the teacher analyze the lesson
The emphasis should be on providing information to the teacher
for fulfilling the contract that was the basis for the observation
cycle
The emphasis is on providing descriptive information
Through out this process, the supervisor’s role is not to
condemn, or admonish but to provide information useful to the
teacher in a supportive atmosphere
• Post conference analysis
This is a springboard to staff development for both
teacher and supervisor
The supervisor evaluates the supervisory cycle for
improving his/her own efforts
This phase is both the end of one cycle and the
beginning of another
Is Clinical Supervision suitable
for Everyone?
• Clinical supervision is time consuming
• Participation requires much more training
• Clinical supervision may be too much supervision for
some teachers
Collegial Supervision
• It is a moderately formalized process by which two or
more teachers agreed to work together for their own
professional growth, normally by observing each
other’s classroom, giving each other feedback about
the observation, and discussing shared professional
concerns (Glatthorn, 1884)
• It is also called cooperative professional development
(Glatthorn, 1984)
• It is nonevaluative strategy for teachers to help one
another as equals and professional colleagues
Self-directed Supervision
• Teachers working alone assume responsibility for
their own professional development
• Teachers develop a yearly plan and shared with their
supervisor
• Supervisors should ensure that the plan and selected
targets are both realistic and attainable
• The process:
Target setting: teachers develop targets/goals that
they would like to reach in improving their teaching,
time frame should be provided for each target and
shared with the supervisor
• Target-setting review
• Target-setting conference: It would be a good idea
for the principal to provide a written summary of the
conference for the teacher
• Appraisal process: This includes formal and informal
observations, an analysis of classroom artifacts, video
tapping, student evaluation, and other information
• All these can be presented in a portfolio
• Summary appraisal: The principal comments on each
target, and together the teacher and principal plan
for the next cycle of supervision
Informal Supervision
• It is a casual encounter by supervisors with teacher
at work and is characterized by frequent but brief
and informal observations of teachers
• Informal supervision is referred as management by
wondering around
• This should not be the sole option, in addition to this,
teachers should be involved in one additional
approach such as clinical, collegial or individual
supervision
The Contingency View of
Supervision
•
•
•
•
The contingency factors:
Cognitive complexity levels of teachers
Learning styles of teachers
Motives of teachers
• Cognitive complexity is concerned with both the structure and
content
Teachers with higher level of cognitive complexity are able to
give attention to a number of different concepts relating to a
particular issue and able to see the interconnections among
these concepts
They are also to be more reflective in their practice
Cognitive complexity increases as teachers are
exposed to more stimulating teaching environments
When teachers are provided with intellectually
stimulating, challenging, and supportive supervisory
environment, levels of cognitive complexity increase
Refer to Figure 14-1 for illustrations
Teacher Learning Styles and
Supervisory Styles
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
•
The four learning styles:
Concrete experience
Reflective observation
Abstract conceptualization
Active experimentation
Concrete experience teachers are more interested
in knowing about and experiencing what works
rather book knowledge
Collegial supervision is the recommended choice for
teachers oriented toward concrete experience
(don’t prefer to work alone)
• Reflective Observation: prefer to observe and makes sense
of what is going on rather than taking a more active role
The better choice for the reflective observer would be
assignment to collegial teams (preferably with actionoriented team members)
• Abstract-conceptualization-oriented teachers resemble
reflective observation teachers but are more actionoriented
They like to see the data
They often profit from collegial supervision
• Active-experimenting teachers are doers and are
interested in getting on with their work
Individual self-directed supervision is the most likely
choice
Motive of Teachers and
Supervisory styles
•
1.
2.
3.
•
The three types of motives are
Achievement
Power influence
Affiliation
The achievement motive is associated with
teachers wanting to take personal responsibility for
their own success or failure
Self-directed supervision is ideally suited to them
• The affiliation motive is associated with
people who have a high concern for warm
and friendly relationships and for social
interaction
Collegial supervision is suitable for them
• Power influence-oriented teachers are
interested in influencing other people
They respond very positively to collegial
supervision and like to assume supervisory
roles