Expository Writing
Grammar Points
Dr. M. Connor
Just hitting the high points
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The number of possible grammar
problems in English writing can seem
limitless!
I’m going to point out a few very
common problems then discuss
punctuation.
Other problems we’ll face as they come!
The sentence fragment
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As you know, an English sentence must
have a subject and a predicate (which
contains the verb).
If one part of a sentence is missing, you
have a sentence fragment.
While they can be used sparingly in
prose for purposes of style, they are
technically incorrect.
Examples of sentence fragments
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Because the sky is blue.
– Because the sky is blue what? You need
to complete the thought.
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For example, when I play my piano.
– This is a common type of error. In your
head it may seem like a complete thought,
but in my head I’m saying, when I play the
piano what?
Revising sentence fragments
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There are two ways to fix sentence
fragments:
– by attaching it to a sentence, usually the
one that went before it
– by adding whatever is necessary to make it
a sentence.
Method one
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Music videos began to make their
appearance in 1980. Some of them
concert performances and some
technological innovations.
Music videos began to make their
appearance in 1980, some of them
concert performances and some
technological innovations.
– Fragment attached to the sentence,
separated by a comma.
Method two
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Music videos began to make their
appearance in 1980. Some of them
concert performances and some
technological innovations.
Music videos began to make their
appearance in 1980. Some of them
were concert performances and some
were technological innovations.
– A verb, were, is added to the fragment,
making it a sentence.
Run-on sentences
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These fall into two categories
– comma splice
– fused sentence
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Both are always wrong
– unlike the sentence fragment that can be
used for effect.
The Comma splice
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These are two independent clauses
(fancy term for a full sentence) linked
together with a comma.
Very common when using the word
however:
– The house looked run-down, however, the
inside was in beautiful shape.
Use a coordinating conjunction
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You can separate two independent
clauses with a comma only when they
are joined by a coordinating conjunction
– and
– but
– or
– nor
– for
– so
– yet
Examples
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The mattress caught fire, the flames
spread quickly.
The mattress caught fire, and the
flames spread quickly.
Other ways to fix a comma splice
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Make separate sentences of the two
clauses.
Insert a semi-colon rather than a
comma (more on this later).
Make one of the independent clauses
into a subordinate clause using a
subordinating conjunction.
Subordinating conjunctions
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Examples:
– although
– after
– since
– when
– that, which, who
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After the mattress caught fire, the
flames spread quickly.
The fused sentence
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This type of error combines two
independent clauses with no connecting
word or punctuation between them.
Dr. Ling is director of the hospital he
also maintains a private practice.
How to repair a fused sentence
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It can be corrected in the same way as
a comma splice.
But grammarians just like to point out
that they are two different types of error!
Mixed sentences
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A mixed sentence is a sentence whose
parts do not fit together, either in
grammar or in meaning.
Examples:
– The catcher dropped the ball is why the
runner is safe.
– By seeing the accident made us start
wearing seat belts.
Beginning one way, ending
another
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Be sure that the parts of your
sentences, particularly subjects and
predicates, fit together grammatically.
– During the worst part of the storm
frightened all of us [prepositional phrase
used as a subject]
– During the worst part of the storm, all of us
were frightened. [main clause revised to
include a subject]
Subjects and predicates fit
together
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Be sure that subjects and predicates of
your sentences fit together in meaning.
– A prank that irks me is my brother when he
jumps out from behind corners. [the prank
is not the brother]
– A prank that irks me is my brother’s he
jumping out from behind corners. [the
prank is the jumping]
Punctuation
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Russell Baker, a Pulitzer Prize winning
author, wrote an essay on how to
punctuate for a series of essays on
writing for schools sponsored by the
International Paper Company in the
1980s.
I’ll be quoting from it here. And adding
my own comments as well!
Listening to punctuation
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When you write, you make a sound in
the reader’s head.
It can be a dull mumble or it can be a
joyful noise, a sly whisper, a throb of
passion.
You need tools!
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One of the most important tools for
making paper speak in your own voice
is punctuation.
Body language
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When you speak aloud, you are
constantly punctuating.
Your listener hears commas, dashes,
question marks, exclamation marks as
you shout, whisper, pause, wave you
arms, roll your eyes, wrinkle your brow.
Over 85% of “spoken” communication is
non-verbal!
Do you see the problem?
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We need to figure out how to get that
85% of missing body language onto the
page!
In writing, punctuation plays the part of
body language.
It helps readers hear you the wat you
want to be heard.
Lots of scary rules
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Don’t let the rules scare you. Most of
them are common sense.
While there are a few “odd” rules, I’ll tell
you what they are, so don’t worry.
Two basic systems of punctuation
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The loose, open system which tries to
capture the way body language
punctuates talk.
The tight, closed structural system,
which hews closely to the sentence’s
grammatical structure.
Most of us use a little of both.
Punctuation isn’t a “heal-all”
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Punctuation marks cannot save a
sentence that’s badly put together.
If you have to struggle over the
punctuation, you have probably built a
sentence that’s never going to fly, no
matter how much you tinker with it.
– Throw is away and rebuild a simpler one!
Choosing the right tool
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There are 30 main punctuation marks in
English!
Most writing gets by on using less than
a dozen.
I’m going to hit the “highlights” here.
The comma [,]
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This is the most widely used mark of all!
It is also the toughest and the most
controversial.
Baker has seen aging editors almost
come to blows over the comma.
I have seen grown lawyers screaming
curses at one another over the use of
the comma! I do not lie!
Comma policy
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Use the comma after a long introductory
phrase or clause:
– After stealing the crown jewels from the
Tower of London, I went home for tea.
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If the introductory material is short,
forget the comma:
– After the theft I went home for tea.
But, and there’s always a “but”...
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But use the comma if the sentence
would be confusing without it, like this:
– The day before I’d robbed the Bank of
England.
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You mean “the day before” to be an
introduction, but here it reads like a
sentence fragment. You want this:
– The day before, I’d robbed the Bank of
England.
Series
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Use a comma to separate elements in a
series.
– I robbed the Denver Mint, the Bank of
England, the Tower of London and my
piggy bank.
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Notice there is no comma before and in
the series. This is common style
nowadays, but some publishers use a
comma there as well. Your choice.
When using a conjunction
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As noted earlier, you use a comma
when separating independent clauses
that are joined by a conjunction like and,
but, for, or, nor, because or so:
– I shall return the crown jewels, for they are
too heavy to wear.
Mildly parenthetical word
grouping
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Use a comma to set off a mildly
parenthetical word grouping that isn’t
essential to the meaning of the
sentence:
– Boys, who have always interested me,
usually differ from girls.
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Notice how we could lose the part in
blue without effecting the meaning of
the sentence.
Another “but”
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Do not use commas if the word
grouping is essential to the meaning of
the sentence:
– Boys who interest me know how to tango.
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See the difference between this and the
slide before?
Use in direct address
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Use a comma in direct address:
– Your majesty, please hand over the crown.
– Officer, I swear I wasn’t speeding!
– Dear sweet Dr. Connor, I haven’t done my
homework.
Between proper names and titles
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Always use a comma between proper
names and titles:
– Montague Sneed, Director of Scotland
Yard, was assigned to the case.
– George W. Bush, President of the United
States, is fighting for reelection.
– Marguerite Connor, Queen of the Universe,
has absolutely no ego problems at all!
Geographical address
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We use a comma to separate elements
of geographical address:
– Director Sneed comes from Chicago,
Illinois, and now lives in London, England.
– The address for Fu Jen is 510 Jung Jeng
Rd., Hsinchuang, 24205, Taipei County,
Taiwan, ROC.
Generally speaking…
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Use a comma where you’d pause briefly
in speed. For a long pause of
completion of thought, use a period.
If you know music, a comma is a onebeat rest, a period is a two-beat rest.
Semicolon [;]
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A more sophisticated mark than the
comma, the semicolon separates two
independent clauses, but keeps them
tightly linked.
– I steal crown jewels; she steals hearts.
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One colleague explained it by saying
you use a semicolon when you want to
link two sentences like they were
cousins.
Other semicolon advice
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I once had an editor who asked me
– What does a semicolon sound like?
– Like a period, I answered.
– Use a period then.
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Perhaps that’s a bit reductionist, but he
had a point.
If you’re unsure as to how to use one,
don’t!
Some semicolon rules
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Use a semicolon to separate main
clauses not joined by a coordinating
conjunction.
– There are six museums in the city; the
largest is the Museum of Fine Arts.
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Use a semicolon to separate main
clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb.
– The reporters waited for an explanation of
the policy change; indeed, they felt they
were entitled to it.
Conjunctive adverbs
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Accordingly
also
anyway
besides
certainly
consequently
finally
further
furthermore
hence
however
incidentally
meanwhile
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Moreover
namely
nevertheless
next
nonetheless
now
otherwise
similarly
still
then
thereafter
thus
undoubtedly
On with the ; rules
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Use a semicolon to separate main
clauses if they are very long or complex
or if they contain commas, even when
they are joined by a coordinating
conjunction.
– The literacy rate in Indonesia, Malaysia and
Singapore is about 50%; but in Cambodia and
Laos the rate is 70% and 80% respectively.
– The announcement that classes were cancelled
were posted all over campus; yet dozens of
students showed up anyway.
Dash [--] and Parenthesis [( )]
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Warning! Use sparingly.
The dash SHOUTS.
Parenthesis whisper.
Shout too often and people stop
listening (think of when your dad starts).
Whisper too much and people become
suspicious of you.
The Dash
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The dash creates a dramatic pause to
prepare for an expression needing
strong emphasis.
– I’ll marry you--if you’ll rob the Post Office
with me.
– Care, tenderness, a sense of humor--Ryan
possessed all of these.
– Some of the largest animals--elephants,
rhinos, and blue whales--are in danger of
extinction.
Parenthesis
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Parenthesis help you pause quietly to
drop in some chatty information not vital
to your story.
– Despite Betty’s daring spirit (“I love robbing
your piggy bank,” she often said), she was
a terrible dancer.
– William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) was not
only a poet but also a playwright and
essayist, and some say, a seer into the
future.
Quotation marks [“ ”]
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These tell the reader you’re reciting the
exact words someone said or wrote:
– Betty said, “I can’t tango.”
– OR
– “I can’t tango,” Betty said.
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Notice the comma comes before the
quote marks in the first example, but
comes before them in the second. Not
logical? Never mind, do it that way
anyway.
More uses
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We also use quotation marks around
the titles of a short story, poem, song or
book chapter. In other words, part of a
whole work, which we would italicize.
– “My Happy Ending” is a great song on Avril
Levigne’s album Under My Skin.
– “The Second Coming” is from W.B. Yeats’s
volume Michael Robartes And The Dancer,
1921.
The colon [:]
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A colon is a tip-off to get ready for
what’s next: a list, a long quotation, or
an explanation.
The message is: “Stay on your toes; it’s
coming at you!”
The apostrophe [’]
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This causes a big headache when it
comes to possessive nouns.
If the noun is singular, add ’s
– I hated Betty’s tango.
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If the noun is plural, simply add an
apostrophe after the s.
– Those are the girls’ coats.
Now for the headache part
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The same applies for singular nouns
ending in “s” like Dickens and words
ending in “z” like Lopez
– This is Dickens’s best book.
– This is Mr. Lopez’s car.
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And now in the plural, add “es’ ”:
– This is the Dickenses’ cottage.
– This is the Lopezes’ boat.
Possessive pronouns
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Possessive pronoun his, hers and its
have no apostrophe.
If you write it’s, you are saying it is.
Contractions
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The other use for apostrophes is in
contractions.
Can not  can’t and so on.
Ending punctuation [. ? !]
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Remember to end your sentences with
a period if they need one.
Questions, of course, need to take a
question mark.
You can also use an exclamation point,
but do you have to?
Too many times they make you sound
breathless and silly. Use your words to
generate excitement, not a bunch of !!!!